Glauconite authigenesis during the warm climatic events of Paleogene: Case studies from shallow marine sections of Western India
Introduction
Iron is a limiting nutrient for marine productivity as it has a major impact on the evolution of the ocean geochemistry and life forms throughout the earth's history (Baldermann et al., 2015; Taylor and Macquaker, 2011). Authigenic iron-bearing minerals show a wide compositional spectrum ranging from Proterozoic hematite-magnetite rich Banded Iron Formation (BIF) to iron-bearing silicates including glauconite, ferric illite, berthierine/chamosite, and celadonite as well as iron oxides (Bekker et al., 2014; Planavsky et al., 2011; Tounekti et al., 2021). Phanerozoic iron formations, especially oolitic ironstones, have received considerable attention regarding their stratigraphic and environmental implications and temporal variation (Van Houten and Arthur, 1989; Van Houten and Purucker, 1984). In contrast, glauconites and other iron-bearing clays have received insignificant attention (Banerjee et al., 2020). The widespread glauconite formation, especially during the Phanerozoic time, deserves considerable focus for its potential to be used as a geochemical archive for understanding oceanographic parameters as well as ocean geochemistry and elemental cycling (Mänd et al., 2021). Although reports on the temporal distribution of glauconite reveal a non-uniform distribution, with peak abundances of glauconite during the Cretaceous and Paleogene, the controlling factors for this distribution are still poorly understood (Banerjee et al., 2016, Banerjee et al., 2020; Bansal et al., 2020b; Roy Choudhury et al., 2021). While recent studies suggest that glauconite prefers to be associated with deposits of warm climatic intervals in Paleogene (Roy Choudhury et al., 2021, Roy Choudhury et al., 2022), the role of warm Paleogene climate on its formation is still poorly understood. In addition, the overall warm Paleogene climate is further superimposed by several short-lived, extreme climatic conditions known as hyperthermal events, including Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 (ETM2), Eocene Thermal Maximum 3 (ETM3), Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO), Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum (MECO) and Late Oligocene Warming Event (LOWE) (Zachos et al., 2001). However, very few studies have highlighted the effects of hyperthermal events on authigenic glauconite and other Fe-silicate formation. The lack of biostratigraphic resolution is a major challenge to link the glauconitization to short-lived warm climatic events. The formation of abundant glauconite during the Paleogene across the globe needs to be understood using an integrated approach, including sedimentology, biostratigraphy and geochemistry. The stratigraphically expanded Paleogene successions from shallow shelves in western India, across four sedimentary basins prompt us to explore the connection between warming events and glauconite formation.
Paleogene sedimentary basins in western India, viz. Kutch, Cambay, Jaisalmer, and Barmer basins, record the transgressive deposits at the eastern Tethyan domain. These shallow marine basins show thick piles of sediments with economically viable lignite, oil, and gas deposits. Although the biotic assemblages of the basins have received considerable attention, the abundance of glauconite within these sedimentary basins is poorly examined. The biostratigraphy of the glauconitic succession is poorly constrained. Although glauconites were reported in the context of sequence architecture, the climatic significance of glauconites was not explored. A few studies indicated the hyperthermal events within the Paleogene deposits (Clementz et al., 2011; Khanolkar et al., 2021; Khozyem et al., 2021; Samanta et al., 2013a). However, the relationship between glauconite occurrence and hyperthermal events was not explored. The objectives of this study are to a) establish the relationship between Paleogene hyperthermal events and glauconite deposits, b) highlight the impact of hyperthermal events on the geochemistry of glauconites, and c) discuss the factors that promote glauconitization during warming events. In this study, we have compiled the available biostratigraphic and carbon isotopic data from four sedimentary basins in western India to understand the origin of glauconite in the backdrop of Paleogene hyperthermal events.
Section snippets
Materials and methods
This paper integrates new data on glauconite geochemistry and biostratigraphy with those presented in our previous works and published data of other workers. We have investigated various Paleogene outcrop and lignite mine sections spanning four sedimentary basins in western India, the details of which are provided as follows.
- a)
Kutch Basin: Paleogene sediments in the Kutch basin were investigated in different locations within the Kutch district of Gujarat, India (Fig. 1). The glauconites of the
Litho- and biostratigraphic framework of the Paleogene glauconite bearing sediments of India
Glauconite-bearing rocks occur within the Paleogene sedimentary basins in Kutch, Cambay, Jaisalmer, and Barmer Basins at the western margin of India. Lithostratigraphic and biostratigraphic frameworks for each of the Paleogene succession are discussed as follows.
Physical and chemical characteristics of Paleogene glauconite
Paleogene glauconites are mostly confined within shales and siltstone. The glauconite mostly occurs as pellets with the rarely preserved substrate material. It also occurs as infillings within bioclasts, especially in Harudi and Maniyara Fort Formations. The majority of the glauconite pellets are of variable size and morphology (Fig. 8, Fig. 9). The pellets range in diameter from ~50 μm to a few mm and often show rounded to sub-rounded morphology. However, pellets with straight boundaries are
Stratigraphic bias in the distribution of glauconite in Paleogene of India
Glauconite mostly occurs at certain intervals in the Cretaceous and Paleogene periods (Banerjee et al., 2016). Within the Paleogene sedimentary deposits glauconites show uneven distribution in abundance. Glauconite is most abundant within the lower Paleogene, while middle Eocene and upper Oligocene sediments host the rest (Banerjee et al., 2020). Glauconite deposits in Kutch, Cambay, Jaisalmer, and Barmer basins formed during brief time intervals in Paleogene. The high-resolution
Conclusions
Following are the conclusions of the study on Paleogene glauconites of western India.
- a.
Authigenic glauconites are abundant within the shallow marine Paleogene sedimentary basins at the western margin of India. The high-resolution biostratigraphic data, with available carbon isotope stratigraphic and radio-isotope data, indicate brief intervals of glauconitization during early, middle and late Paleogene time, alternating with prolonged glauconite-free intervals.
- b.
Glauconite occurs immediately before
Declaration of Competing Interest
None.
Acknowledgments
SB acknowledges financial support by the Department of Sciences and Technology, Government of India through grant no. INT/RUS/RFBR/390. TRC acknowledges CSIR Fellowship (09/087(0860)/2016-EMR-I) for providing financial assistance. The authors would also like to thank IIT Bombay for providing infrastructural facilities. SK is thankful to the Department of Science and Technology, India Inspire Faculty Fellowship (DST/INSPIRE/04/2016/002525) for funding her tenure to carry out the project at IIT
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