Abstract
Selfies are related to dissatisfaction with appearance, but interestingly, selfies also predict positive evaluation about appearance (e.g., narcissism). In addition, selfie effects on appearance were examined only at the personal level. This paper investigated appearance-related effects of selfies among Asian women both at the personal and societal level while controlling for individuals’ perception of own appearance to see selfie effects regardless of (dis)satisfaction with appearance. At the personal level, acceptance of cosmetic surgery (ACS) was chosen as the outcome because cosmetic surgery is the most drastic means of personal transformation. At the societal level, acceptance of lookism (AL), discrimination based on appearance, was adopted because it shows social orientation toward beauty. Study 1 (N = 501), conducted among Singaporean women, found that selfie taking directly predicts ACS and also indirectly influences ACS through appearance comparison. However, indirect effects were not significant in the high self-esteem group (top 27.65%). Study 2, with longitudinal data (N = 941 at Wave 1 and 653 at Wave 2) collected from South Korean women, found that selfie taking and editing are first associated with appearance orientation, meaning the personal importance of appearance, at Wave 1, and such increased attention positively predicts AL, the societal importance of appearance, at Wave 2. No direct effects were found. The results suggest that selfies are associated with appearance-related beliefs both at the personal and societal level regardless of one’s perception of own appearance, but there are individual differences and underlying mechanisms.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The datasets analyzed in the current study are available in “Mendeley Data.” [doi: https://doi.org/10.17632/s2nyrw77rw.1], [https://doi.org/10.17632/wd8phdbmhv.1].
References
Aquino, Y. S. J. (2017). “Big eye” surgery: The ethics of medicalizing Asian features. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics, 38, 213–225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11017-017-9395-y.
Aquino, Y. S. J., & Steinkamp, N. (2016). Borrowed beauty? Understanding identity in Asian facial cosmetic surgery. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy, 19(3), 431–441. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11019-016-9699-0.
Arnocky, S., & Piché, T. (2014). Cosmetic surgery as intrasexual competition: The mediating role of social comparison. Psychology, 5, 1197–1205. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2014.510132.
Bantimaroudis, P. (2020). I am the agenda: Personal salience, agenda selfying and individual name building in hybrid media settings. Studies in media. Communication, 8, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.11114/smc.v8i1.4677.
Bauer, D. J., & Curran, P. J. (2005). Probing interactions in fixed and multilevel regression: Inferential and graphical techniques. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 40(3), 373–400. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr4003_5.
Bij de Vaate, A. J. N., Veldhuis, J., Alleva, J. M., Konijn, E. A., & van Hugten, C. H. (2018). Show your best self (ie): An exploratory study on selfie-related motivations and behavior in emerging adulthood. Telematics and Informatics, 35(5), 1392–1407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2018.03.010.
Brown, T. A., Cash, T. F., & Mikulka, P. J. (1990). Attitudinal body image assessment: Factor analysis of the body-self relations questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55(1–2), 135–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.1990.9674053.
Buunk, A. P., & Gibbons, F. X. (2007). Social comparison: The end of a theory and theemergence of a field. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 102, 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2006.09.007.
Callegaro, M., & DiSogra, C. (2008). Computing response metrics for online panels. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 72, 1008–1032. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfn065.
Calogero, R. M., Pina, A., & Sutton, R. M. (2014). Cutting words: Priming self-objectification increases women’s intention to pursue cosmetic surgery. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38, 197–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684313506881.
Cash, T. F. (2000). The multidimensional body-self relations questionnaire. Unpublished test manual, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA.
Chae, J. (2017). “Virtual makeover”: Selfie-taking and social media use increase photo editing frequency through social comparison. Computers in Human Behavior, 66, 370–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.10.007.
Chae, J. (2019). What makes us accept lookism in the selfie era? A three-way interaction among the present, the constant, and the past. Computers in Human Behavior, 97, 75–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.03.012.
Chae, J. (2021). YouTube makeup tutorials reinforce postfeminist beliefs through social comparison. Media Psychology, 24(2), 167–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2019.1679187.
Chan, C. K., Ku, Y., & Owens, R. G. (2010). Perfectionism and eating disturbances in Korean immigrants: Moderating effects of acculturation and ethnic identity. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 13(4), 293–302. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2010.01326.x.
Cohen, R., Newton-John, T., & Slater, A. (2018). ‘Selfie’-objectification: The role of selfies in self-objectification and disordered eating in young women. Computers in Human Behavior, 79, 68–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.10.027.
Corcoran, K., Crusius, J., & Musweiler, T. (2011). Social comparison: Motives, standards, and mechanisms. In D. Chadee (Ed.), Theories in social psychology (pp. 119–139). Wiley-Blackwell.
Davis, C., Dionne, M., & Shuster, B. (2001). Physical and psychological correlates of appearance orientation. Personality and Individual Differences, 30(1), 21–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00006-4.
Dhir, A., Pallesen, S., Torsheim, T., & Andreassen, C. S. (2016). Do age and gender differences exist in selfie-related behaviours? Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 549–555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.053.
Di Gesto, C., Nerini, A., Policardo, G. R., & Matera, C. (2021). Predictors of acceptance of cosmetic surgery: Instagram images-based activities, appearance comparison and body dissatisfaction among women. Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00266-021-02546-3.
Ehrlich, H. J. (1973). The social psychology of prejudice. Wiley.
Eisinga, R., Grotenhuis, M. T., & Pelzer, B. (2013). The reliability of a two-item scale: Pearson, Cronbach, or spearman-Brown? International Journal of Public Health, 58(4), 637–642. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-012-0416-3.
Farshidfar, Z., Dastjerdi, R., & Shahabizadeh, F. (2013). Acceptance of cosmetic surgery: Body image, self esteem and conformity. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 84, 238–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.542.
Ferguson, C. J. (2013). In the eye of the beholder: Thin-ideal media affects some, but not most, viewers in a meta-analytic review of body dissatisfaction in women and men. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 2(1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030766.
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7(2), 117–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872675400700202.
Finkel, S. E. (1995). Causal analysis with panel data (Sage University paper series on quantitative applications in the social sciences, 07–105). Sage.
Fitzpatrick, S., Sherry, S., Hartling, N., Hewitt, P., Flett, G., & Sherry, D. (2011). Narcissism, perfectionism, and interest in cosmetic surgery. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 127(6), 176e–177e. https://doi.org/10.1097/PRS.0b013e3182131ec9.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2), 173–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x.
Frith, K., Shaw, P., & Cheng, H. (2005). The construction of beauty: A cross-cultural analysis of Women’s magazine advertising. Journal of Communication, 55(1), 56–70. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02658.x.
Furnham, A., & Levitas, J. (2012). Factors that motivate people to undergo cosmetic surgery. The Canadian Journal of Plastic Surgery, 20(4), 47–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/229255031202000406.
Ghodrati, Z., Joorabchi, T. N., & Muati, A. (2015). The influence of globalization on “lookism” in workplace environments of different cultures. Global Media Journal, 13(24), 1–17.
Halpern, D., Valenzuela, S., & Katz, J. E. (2016). “Selfie-ists” or “Narci-selfiers”?: A cross-lagged panel analysis of selfie taking and narcissism. Personality and Individual Differences, 97, 98–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.03.019.
Hamermesh, D. S. (2013). Beauty pays: Why attractive people are more successful. Princeton University Press.
Hayes, A. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis. Guilford Press.
Heinberg, L. J. (1996). Theories of body image disturbance. In J. K. Thompson (Ed.), Body image, eating disorders, and obesity (pp. 27–47). American Psychological Association.
Henderson-King, D., & Henderson-King, E. (2005). Acceptance of cosmetic surgery: Scale development and validation. Body Image, 2(2), 137–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.03.003.
Holmqvist, K., & Frisén, A. (2010). Body dissatisfaction across cultures: Findings and research problems. European Eating Disorders Review: The Professional Journal of the Eating Disorders Association, 18(2), 133–146. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.965.
Holmstrom, A. J. (2004). The effects of the media on body image: A meta-analysis. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 48(2), 196–217. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem4802_3.
International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery (2020). ISAPS international survey on aesthetic/cosmetic procedures. Retrieved March, 2022 from https://www.isaps.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/ISAPS-Global-Survey_2020.pdf.
Johnson, P. O., & Neyman, J. (1936). Tests of certain linear hypotheses and their application to some educational problems. Statistical Research Memoirs, 1, 57–93.
Jung, E. H., Zhang, L., & Nekmat, E. (2020). SNS usage and third-person effects in the risk perception of Zika virus among Singaporean women. Journal of Health Communication, 25(9), 736–744. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2020.1840676.
Kedzior, R., & Allen, D. E. (2016). From liberation to control: Understanding the selfie experience. European Journal of Marketing, 50(9/10), 1893–1902. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-07-2015-0512.
Lindell, A. K. (2017). Consistently showing your best side? Intra-individual consistency in# selfie pose orientation. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 246. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00246.
Lyu, Z., Jiao, Y., Zheng, P., & Zhong, J. (2021). Why do selfies increase young women’s willingness to consider cosmetic surgery in China? The mediating roles of body surveillance and body shame. Journal of Health Psychology, Online advance publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105321990802.
Mason, A. (2021). What’s wrong with everyday lookism? Politics, Philosophy & Economics, 20(3), 315–335. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470594X20982051.
Matera, C., Nerini, A., & Stefanile, C. (2018). Why are men interested in cosmetic surgery procedures? Examining the role of different forms of peer influence, social comparison, internalization, and body dissatisfaction. Body Image, 26, 74–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.06.003.
Myers, T. A., & Crowther, J. H. (2009). Social comparison as a predictor of body dissatisfaction: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118(4), 683–698. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016763.
Ng, J. H., Yeak, S., Phoon, N., & Lo, S. (2014). Cosmetic procedures among youths: A survey of junior college and medical students in Singapore. Singapore Medical Journal, 55(8), 422. https://doi.org/10.11622/smedj.2014100.
Niu, G., Sun, L., Liu, Q., Chai, H., Sun, X., & Zhou, Z. (2020). Selfie-posting and young adult women’s restrained eating: The role of commentary on appearance and self-objectification. Sex Roles, 82(3–4), 232–240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-01045-9.
Ozansoy Çadırcı, T., & Sağkaya Güngör, A. (2019). Love my selfie: Selfies in managing impressions on social networks. Journal of Marketing Communications, 25(3), 268–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/13527266.2016.1249390.
Quittkat, H. L., Hartmann, A. S., Düsing, R., Buhlmann, U., & Vocks, S. (2019). Body dissatisfaction, importance of appearance, and body appreciation in men and women over the lifespan. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 864. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00864.
Rajanala, S., Maymone, M. B. C., & Vashi, N. A. (2018). Selfies - living in the era of filtered photographs. JAMA Facial Plastic Surgery, 20(6), 443–444. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamafacial.2018.0486.
Rosenberg, M. (2015). Society and the adolescent self-image (Princeton legacy library). Princeton University Press.
Sarwer, D. B., & Crerand, C. E. (2004). Body image and cosmetic medical treatments. Body Image, 1(1), 99–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1740-1445(03)00003-2.
Sims, C. H. (2017). Genderized workplace lookism in the US and abroad: implications for organization and career development professionals. In Information Resources Management Association (Ed.), Discrimination and diversity: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications (pp. 61–85). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-1933-1.ch005.
von Soest, T., Kvalem, I. L., Roald, H. E., & Skolleborg, K. C. (2009). The effects of cosmetic surgery on body image, self-esteem, and psychological problems. Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery, 62(10), 1238–1244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjps.2007.12.093.
Suler, J. (2015). From self-portraits to selfies. International Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies, 12(2), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.1002/aps.1448.
Sun, Q. (2021). Selfie editing and consideration of cosmetic surgery among young Chinese women: The role of self-objectification and facial dissatisfaction. Sex Roles, 84(11), 670–679. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01191-5.
Swami, V., Arteche, A., Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Furnham, A., Stieger, S., Haubner, T., & Voracek, M. (2008). Looking good: Factors affecting the likelihood of having cosmetic surgery. European Journal of Plastic Surgery, 30(5), 211–218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00238-007-0185-z.
Swami, V., Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Bridges, S., & Furnham, A. (2009). Acceptance of cosmetic surgery: Personality and individual difference predictors. Body Image, 6(1), 7–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2008.09.004.
Takáč, P. (2020). Current issues in aesthetics and beyond: Revisiting lookism. Ethics & Bioethics, 10(1–2), 59–68. https://doi.org/10.2478/ebce-2020-0005.
Terán, L., Yan, K., & Aubrey, J. S. (2020). “But first let me take a selfie”: US adolescent girls’ selfie activities, self-objectification, imaginary audience beliefs, and appearance concerns. Journal of Children and Media, 14(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2019.1697319.
Van Den Berg, P. A., Mond, J., Eisenberg, M., Ackard, D., & Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2010). The link between body dissatisfaction and self-esteem in adolescents: Similarities across gender, age, weight status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Journal of Adolescent Health, 47(3), 290–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.02.004.
Wang, Y., Xie, X., Wang, X., Wang, P., Nie, J., & Lei, L. (2018). Narcissism and selfie-posting behavior: The mediating role of body satisfaction and the moderating role of attitude toward selfie-posting behavior. Current Psychology, 39(2), 665–672. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-9795-9.
Wang, Y., Chu, X., Nie, J., Gu, X., & Lei, L. (2021a). Selfie-editing, facial dissatisfaction, and cosmetic surgery consideration among Chinese adolescents: A longitudinal study. Current Psychology, Advance Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01280-4.
Wang, Y., Xie, X., Fardouly, J., Vartanian, L. R., & Lei, L. (2021b). The longitudinal and reciprocal relationships between selfie-related behaviors and self-objectification and appearance concerns among adolescents. New Media & Society, 23(1), 56–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444819894346.
Yan, Y., & Bissell, K. (2014). The globalization of beauty: How is ideal beauty influenced by globally published fashion and beauty magazines? Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 43(3), 194–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/17475759.2014.917432.
Yang, C. C., Holden, S. M., & Carter, M. D. (2018). Social media social comparison of ability (but not opinion) predicts lower identity clarity: Identity processing style as a mediator. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(10), 2114–2128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0801-6.
Yang, J., Fardouly, J., Wang, Y., & Shi, W. (2020). Selfie-viewing and facial dissatisfaction among emerging adults: A moderated mediation model of appearance comparisons and self-objectification. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(2), 672. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17020672.
Yellowlees, R., Dingemans, A. E., Veldhuis, J., & de Vaate, A. B. (2019). Face yourself (ie): Investigating selfie-behavior in females with severe eating disorder symptoms. Computers in Human Behavior, 101, 77–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.07.018.
Funding
This paper was supported by Konkuk University in 2019.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Material preparation, data collection, analysis, and writing were all performed by the corresponding author.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Conflict of Interest
The author has no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Chae, J. Appearance-related effects of selfies at the personal and societal level among Asian women: acceptance of cosmetic surgery and lookism. Curr Psychol 42, 21720–21732 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03290-w
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03290-w