Spatial and temporal characteristics of the precipitation response to the 4.2 ka event in the Asian summer monsoon region

doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2022.103854

Global and Planetary Change

Volume 214, July 2022, 103854

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2022.103854 Get rights and content

Highlights

•
Clarified the timing and structural features of the 4.2 ka event in North China.
•
Confirmed the response characteristics of the 4.2 ka event in ASM region.
•
Determined the transmission mechanism of the signal of the 4.2 ka event in ASM region.

Abstract

The 4.2 ka event was the most abrupt climatic event during the transition between the middle and late Holocene. It had a profound influence on the regional ecological environment and human cultural development and was characterized by the rapid onset of aridification in the mid- and low-latitudes regions of the Northern Hemisphere. However, the nature, structure and spatial expression of the 4.2 ka event in the Asian summer monsoon (ASM) region are controversial. We produced a detailed record of regional vegetation change during the interval of 5000–3500 cal yr BP, based on a high-resolution (~10 yr) pollen record from Yazihai Lake, on the margin of the region influenced by the ASM. The results indicate that an interval of climatic aridification, correlative with the 4.2 ka event, occurred during 4340–3880 cal yr BP, with the duration of 460 yr. However, the structure of the event is relatively complex, with arid conditions during 4340–4280 cal yr BP, wetter conditions during 4280–4150 cal yr BP, and arid conditions during 4150–3880 cal yr BP. A comprehensive comparison of the results from Yazihai Lake with existing high-resolution and well-dated paleoclimate records from the ASM region show that the precipitation response to the 4.2 ka event was spatially and temporally synchronous, with a consistent of timing, duration, and structural characteristics in the northern and southwestern parts of the ASM region; whereas the opposite response occurred in the southeastern part, where the precipitation increased. We suggest that the driving mechanism of the 4.2 ka event was related to sea-air interactions in the low-latitude region. Sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies and the variation of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the tropical Pacific region was the main cause, which led to a weaker ASM circulation and a southward shift of the monsoon rainbelt. These changes resulted in decreased monsoonal precipitation and a dry climate in the northern and southwestern parts of the ASM region, but to increased precipitation in the southeastern part.

Introduction

The 4.2 ka event was a pronounced arid event during the transition from the middle to the late Holocene (Berkelhammer et al., 2012), which had a profound impact on regional environments and human cultural development (Weiss et al., 1993; Weiss and Bradley, 2001; Demenocal, 2001). In July 2018, the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) used Mawmluh Cave in Meghalaya, northeast India, as the stratigraphic standard for the 4.2 ka event, which was formerly established as the boundary between the Middle Holocene (Northgrippian) and Late Holocene (Meghalayan) divisions (Walker et al., 2018), which has promoted the 4.2 ka event as a frontier area in global change research.

The 4.2 ka event was first identified in the 1990s, based on evidence from geological records from Mesopotamia (Cullen et al., 2000; Bar-Matthews et al., 2003), the Nile valley (Stanley et al., 2003; Arz et al., 2006), Indus valley (Staubwasser et al., 2003; Prasad and Enzel, 2006; Dixit et al., 2014), European caves (Drysdale et al., 2006), North American peat deposits (Booth et al., 2004), North Atlantic deep-sea sediments (Bond et al., 1997), and East Asian stalagmites (Wang et al., 2005; Cai et al., 2021). The 4.2 ka event was characterized by significant aridity at low- and mid- latitudes (Thompson et al., 2002; Kröpelin et al., 2008; Liu and Feng, 2012; Zielhofer et al., 2017), whereas the climate was relatively moist at middle and high latitudes (Menounos et al., 2008; Chase et al., 2009; Jordan et al., 2017), demonstrating a significant spatial divergence in the response to the 4.2 ka event between different regions (Railsback et al., 2018; Railsback et al., 2022), as well as differences in its timing and structural characteristics.

The Asian summer monsoon (ASM) region is one of the most dynamic regions on Earth in terms of global land-sea-air interactions (Ding and Chan, 2005; Wang et al., 2008). Substantial changes in monsoon circulation patterns (Tao, 1987; Gao, 1962), surface temperature conditions (Shi et al., 1993), and regional hydrological characteristics (Lin and Xu, 1986) occurred in the ASM region. In southwestern China, stalagmite oxygen isotope records indicate a drier regional climate (Wang et al., 2005), with a well-defined “weak–strong–weak” structure of the ASM during the 4.2 ka event (Chen et al., 2021), while stalagmite oxygen isotope records and the sedimentary Ti record of Huguangyan Maar Lake in the southeastern part of the region indicate a wet period (Shen et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2021). In North China, lake sediment records indicate significant regional aridification (Xiao et al., 2018), manifested primarily by a decrease in precipitation (Xu et al., 2010) and a decline in lake levels (Xiao et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2020). The available records indicate a spatial differentiation of the response characteristics of the 4.2 ka event in the ASM region. It is noteworthy that ASM precipitation was influenced or controlled by the strength of the ASM. However, given that most of the available well-dated, high resolution geological records (mainly from stalagmites) are from the southern part of the ASM region (southwest China), there is an urgent need to obtain comparable records from the northern part of the region, in order to comprehensively determine the temporal and spatial characteristics of the regional environmental response to the 4.2 ka event throughout the ASM region.

Yazihai Lake is an enclosed freshwater alpine lake on the climatically sensitive ASM margin (Fig. 1), and its sedimentary record is potentially valuable for paleoclimatic reconstruction. In this study, we sought to establish a detailed record of the sequence of regional vegetation and climate change in the study area during the interval of 5000–3500 cal yr BP, based on high resolution (~10 yr) pollen analyses of the sediments from Yazihai Lake, with the specific objectives of determining the timing, structural characteristics, and the transmission mechanism for the signal of the 4.2 ka event in the ASM region.

Section snippets

Study area

Yazihai Lake (38°51′29.8″ N, 112°12′55.4″ E; 1800 m a.s.l.) is located ~20 km southwest of Ningwu Country, Shanxi Province, on the northern margin of the Chinese Loess Plateau. It is an alpine, enclosed freshwater lake that formed at the end of the Late Pleistocene (Wang et al., 2014). The basin area is ~0.04 km², with a length of 250 m, width of 160 m, and average water depth of 1.6 m, and the lake is fed mainly by precipitation and groundwater (Zhang et al., 2022).

The study area is situated

Sediment coring

Sediment cores were taken from the frozen lake surface in January 2019. The coring site was at the depocenter of the lake and homemade gravity and piston coring systems were used. A sediment core was extracted to a maximum depth of 8-m beneath the lake floor and was designated YZH-2019. The core sections were photographed and described in the field. After transport to the laboratory, whole-core elemental analyses were conducted using an Avaatech XRF Core Scanner. The sections were then sliced

Lithology and chronology

Core YZH-2019 comprises a continuous sequence of lacustrine sediments with no evidence of hiatuses. Zhang et al. (2022) provide a detailed description of the lithology and establish a chronological framework for core YZH-2019. They show that the 8-m-long interval of core YZH-2019 spans the last 11,860 years. The Bayesian accumulation age-depth model indicates a relatively uniform sediment accumulation rate of 0.1 cm/yr (Fig. S1).

Here, we focus on the response characteristics of the Yazihai Lake

Paleoclimatic implications of the pollen record from Yazihai Lake

Yazihai Lake is an enclosed freshwater alpine lake with no river inflows, and the pollen grains are mainly supplied by surface runoff from the catchment and by atmospheric transport. The pollen types within the interval of 316–220 cm of core YZH-2019 can be divided into five ecological groups (Fig. S3), with reference to the modern composition of the regional vegetation and the standard sequence of regional pollen changes since the last deglaciation (Xu et al., 2017).

The dynamics of the forest

Conclusions

A high resolution (~10 yr) pollen record from Yazihai Lake provides a detailed history of regional vegetation change on the margin of the ASM during 5000–3500 cal yr BP. The record indicates significant aridification during the 4.2 ka event and that the event has a distinct internal structure characterized by a “dry–wet–dry” sequence. Comparison of the record with existing well dated, high-resolution records from the region demonstrates a consistent spatial expression and synchronous climatic

Data availability

Research data from this study are available on request ([email protected]).

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Prof. Zhengtang Guo and three anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments and suggestions which have significantly improved the manuscript. This work was supported the National Natural Science Foundation of China (awards U20A20116, 41931181 & 42007395). We sincerely thank Dr. Chunhai Li (Nanjing Institute of Geography & Limnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences) for his help with field work, Prof. Xiaozhong Huang (Lanzhou University) and Mr. Yuanhao Sun (Lanzhou

References (86)

H.W. Arz et al.
A pronounced dry event recorded around 4.2 ka in brine sediments from the northern Red Sea
Quat. Res.
(2006)
M. Bar-Matthews et al.
Sea-land oxygen isotopic relationships from planktonic foraminifera and speleothems in the eastern Mediterranean region and their implication for paleorainfall during interglacial intervals
Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta
(2003)
R.K. Booth et al.
Paleoecology and high-resolution paleohydrology of a kettle peatland in Upper Michigan
Quat. Res.
(2004)
Y.J. Cai et al.
Holocene variability of East Asian summer monsoon as viewed from the speleothem δ¹⁸O records in central China
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.
(2021)
J. Cosford et al.
East Asian monsoon variability since the Mid-Holocene recorded in a high-resolution, absolute-dated aragonite speleothem from eastern China
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.
(2008)
Z.M. Jian et al.
Holocene variability of the Kuroshio current in the Okinawa Trough, northwestern Pacific Ocean
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.
(2000)
S.F. Jordan et al.
Mid-Holocene climate change and landscape formation in Ireland: evidence from a geochemical investigation of a coastal peat bog
Org. Geochem.
(2017)
H. Kajita et al.
Extraordinary cold episodes during the mid-Holocene in the Yangtze delta: interruption of the earliest rice cultivating civilization
Quat. Sci. Rev.
(2018)
S. Prasad et al.
Holocene paleoclimates of India
Quat. Res.
(2006)
L.B. Railsback et al.
The timing, two-pulsed nature, and variable climatic expression of the 4.2 ka event: a review and new high-resolution stalagmite data from Namibia
Quat. Sci. Rev.
(2018)

L.B. Railsback et al.

Additional multi-proxy stalagmite evidence from northeast Namibia supports recent models of wetter conditions during the 4.2 ka event in the Southern Hemisphere

Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol.

(2022)

C.J.F. ter Braak et al.

A theory of gradient analysis

Adv. Ecol. Res.

(1988)

R.L. Wen et al.

Pollen-climate transfer functions intended for temperate eastern Asia

Quat. Int.

(2013)

R.L. Wen et al.

Pollen evidence for a mid-Holocene East Asian summer monsoon maximum in northern China

Quat. Sci. Rev.

(2017)

J.L. Xiao et al.

The 4.2 ka event and its resulting cultural interruption in the Daihai lake basin at the East Asian summer monsoon margin

Quat. Int.

(2019)

S.R. Zhang et al.

Differential response of vegetation in Hulun Lake region at the northern margin of Asian summer monsoon to extreme cold events of the last deglaciation

Quat. Sci. Rev.

(2018)

S.R. Zhang et al.

Significant weak monsoon events during the early to middle Holocene transition: pollen evidence from an alpine lake in North China

Quat. Sci. Rev.

(2022)

C. Zielhofer et al.

Millennial-scale fluctuations in Saharan dust supply across the decline of the African humid period

Quat. Sci. Rev.

(2017)

M. Berkelhammer et al.

An abrupt shift in the Indian Monsoon 4000 years ago

Geophys. Monogr. Ser.

(2012)

G. Bond et al.

A pervasive millennial-scale cycle in North Atlantic Holocene and glacial climates

Science

(1997)

G. Bond et al.

Persistent solar influence on North Atlantic climate during the Holocene

Science

(2001)

R.K. Booth et al.

A severe centennial-scale drought in mid-continental North America 4200 years ago and apparent global linkages

The Holocene

(2005)

R.A. Bryson

Late quaternary volcanic modulation of Milankovitch climate forcing

Theor. Appl. Climatol.

(1989)

B.M. Chase et al.

A record of rapid Holocene climate change preserved in hyrax middens from southwestern Africa

Geology

(2009)

F.H. Chen et al.

Holocene environmental change inferred from a high-resolution pollen record, Lake Zhuyeze, arid China

The Holocene

(2006)

C.J. Chen et al.

The 4.2 ka event in East Asian monsoon region, precisely reconstructed by multi-proxies of stalagmite

Clim. Past Discuss

(2021)

H.M. Cullen et al.

Climate change and the collapse of the Akkadian empire: evidence from the deep sea

Geology

(2000)

S.H. Dang et al.

El Niño/Southern Oscillation during the 4.2 ka event recorded by growth rates of corals from the North South China Sea

Acta Oceanol. Sin.

(2020)

P.B. Demenocal

Cultural responses to climate change during the late Holocene

Science

(2001)

Y.H. Ding et al.

The East Asian summer monsoon: an overview

Meteorog. Atmos. Phys.

(2005)

Y. Dixit et al.

Abrupt weakening of the summer monsoon in northwest India ~4100 yr ago

Geology

(2014)

R. Drysdale et al.

Late Holocene drought responsible for the collapse of Old-World civilizations is recorded in an Italian cave flowstone

Geology

(2006)

K. Fægri et al.

Textbook of Pollen Analysis

(2001)

D.A. Fisher

Connecting the Atlantic-sector and the North Pacific (Mt Logan) ice core stable isotope records during the Holocene: the role of El Niño

The Holocene

(2011)

Y.X. Gao

Some Problems on East Asia Monsoon

(1962)

X. Geng et al.

Modulation of the relationship between ENSO and its combination mode by the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation

J. Clim.

(2020)

L.J. Gray et al.

Solar influences on climate over the Atlantic/ European sector

AIP Conf. Proc.

(2017)

E.C. Grimm

Tilia Version 2.6.1

(2019)

G.Z. Guo

Prospects of Mayinghai wetland

(2009)

B. Hong et al.

Temperature evolution from the δ¹⁸O record of Hani peat, northeast China, in the last 14000 years

Sci. China Ser. D Earth Sci.

(2009)

Y.Y. Huang et al.

Changes in the influence of the western Pacific subtropical high on Asian summer monsoon rainfall in the late 1990s

Clim. Dyn.

(2018)

S.J. Johnsen et al.

The δ¹⁸O record along the Greenland Ice Core Project deep ice core and the problem of possible Eemian climatic instability

J. Geophys. Res.

(1997)

S. Kim et al.

Interannual and decadal covariabilities in East Asian and Western North Pacific summer rainfall for 1979–2016

Clim. Dyn.

(2021)

Cited by (10)

Precipitation changes and extreme drought events over the last millennium inferred from a pollen record from Moon Lake, Northeast China
2024, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
Variations in East Asian summer monsoon (EASM) precipitation impact the ecological environment, economy, and society of eastern China. However, the nature of precipitation changes and their driving mechanisms in this region during the last millennium remain unclear. We conducted a pollen study of the recent sediments of Moon Lake in Northeast China to quantitatively reconstruct precipitation changes over the past ∼1000 years. The results show that during the Medieval Warm Period (MWP, 1068–1300 CE), the Moon Lake area had a relatively dense vegetation cover and experienced favorable climatic conditions. Precipitation increased during this period, with an average precipitation anomaly percentage (PAP) of 0.1% which reached a peak of 7.2%. However, during the Little Ice Age (LIA, 1400–1900 CE), the climatic conditions in the Moon Lake area deteriorated, and there was a reduction in the cover of forest vegetation and relatively open landscapes developed. Precipitation decreased during this period, with an average PAP of −1.4% which reached a minimum of −9.9%. During the 20th-century warming period (CWP, 1900 CE–present), the regional environmental conditions improved substantially, and the density of the forest vegetation increased. Precipitation increased, with an average PAP of 1.1% and maximum of 11.1%. Additionally, the Moon Lake area exhibited several prominent short-term (centennial- to decadal-scale) climate fluctuations over the last millennium. Drought events, characterized by negative precipitation anomalies, occurred during 1070–1130 CE, 1150–1190 CE, 1370–1420 CE, 1660–1720 CE, and 1870–1930 CE. These climate anomalies also occurred in northern China, with significant impacts on the socioeconomic well-being of the local population. We suggest that changes in EASM intensity, modulated by solar activity, were responsible for these anomalies. Solar activity directly or indirectly drives increases (decreases) in sea surface temperature (SST) in the North Pacific and North Atlantic Oceans, which lead to cold (warm) phases of the El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO), as well as to warm (cold) phases of the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO), as occurred during the MWP (LIA). This complex interaction alternately strengthens (weakens) the EASM intensity, resulting in northward (impeded northward) shifts of the monsoon rainbelt, which led to increased (decreased) precipitation in the Moon Lake area during the MWP (LIA). Furthermore, we propose that the anomalous warm PDO phases and anomalous AMO cold phases may act as a driver of the occurrence of extreme drought events on the centennial- to decadal-scale. We suggest that these cold and warm fluctuations of the PDO and AMO should be the focus of research attempts to predict future climate extreme events.
Low-latitude forcing on 4.2 ka event indicated by records in the Asian monsoon region
2024, Global and Planetary Change
The 4.2 ka event is an important climatic event of the Holocene that is expected to considerably influence the development of human civilizations. However, the forcing mechanism of the 4.2 ka event remains unclear, with current evidence being divided between high-latitude and low-latitude forcings. The Asian climate system contains strong summer and winter monsoon circulations, and thus the region is ideal for studying high- and low-latitude climate forcings on 4.2 ka event. In this study, we present a high-resolution pollen record of the past 5000 years from Wudalianchi Crater Lake in northeastern China in the East Asian monsoon region. An evident decrease in broadleaf trees occurred during the 4.2 ka event, suggesting a decrease in summer monsoon rainfall. Well-dated high-resolution pollen, stalagmite δ¹⁸O, and winter monsoon records were collected to study the possible transportation of high- and low-latitude signals. Most of the pollen records showed significant changes during the 4.2 ka event, while no apparent change was found in winter monsoon records. Meanwhile, more obvious changes in stalagmite δ¹⁸O records were observed in lower- rather than the higher-latitude regions around 4.2 ka. Our results suggest that the signal of the 4.2 ka event might be transported by low-latitude processes, thus corresponding to a low-latitude forcing.
Middle to late Holocene hydroclimate instability in the Yangtze River Delta region of China inferred from phytolith records, and its implications for societal disruption
2024, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
The decline of ancient societies has been often associated with hydroclimate instabilities. In this paper, we report phytolith records from the Yangtze River Delta of China, to reconstruct middle and late Holocene climate dynamics, and understand societal impacts. Our findings reveal that the area experienced a consistent decline in temperature and humidity punctuated by several rapid climate shifts. A distinct dry episode from 7000 to 6000 cal yr BP likely developed in response to weakened Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) and a southward shift of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), resulting in a weakened East Asian summer monsoon (EASM) and a strengthened East Asian winter monsoon (EAWM). This dry condition would have favoured the emergence of dryland and facilitated rice cultivation in the lower Yangtze region. Another dry episode at 4500–4000 cal yr BP, which was probably associated with the widespread 4.2 ka climate event, and linked to a further retreat of the ITCZ and highly variable ENSO intensity, led to highly unstable hydroclimate conditions in the region. We argue that this event disrupted social resilience and culminated in the cultural collapse at the end of Liangzhu Culture.
Climate and sea-level fluctuations on the western coast of Bohai Bay during the 4.2 ka event: Multi-proxy evidence from the Nandagang area of Cangzhou, China
2024, Quaternary Science Reviews
The 4.2 ka event was an important climatic event during the mid–late Holocene, with significant effects on the ecological environment and climatic evolution of different regions. Coastal wetlands, as a transitional ecosystem between land and sea, are sensitive to changes in climate and sea level; hence, research on coastal wetlands is important for reconstructing past climate and sea-level changes and for predicting future changes. However, little research has been conducted on the characteristics of the 4.2 ka event on the western coast of Bohai Bay in China. We analyzed the pollen assemblages (214 samples), grain size, and geochemical element contents of a mid–late Holocene sedimentary sequence from the Nandagang (NDG) wetland on Bohai Bay, with the chronology based on 13 AMS ¹⁴C dates. The results revealed the history of climate and sea-level changes on the western coast of Bohai Bay during the interval of 5000–3600 cal yr BP. High sedimentary arboreal pollen concentrations indicated that the NDG area had a relatively dense cover and humid climate during 5000–4450 cal yr BP. During the 380-year interval of 4450–4070 cal yr BP, corresponding to the 4.2 ka event, the decreased representation of arboreal pollen indicated a decrease in the regional forest cover and an arid climate. The internal structure of the 4.2 ka event recorded in core NDG showed a dry-wet-dry temporal structure during the intervals of 4450–4290 cal yr BP, 4290–4170 cal yr BP, and 4170–4070 cal yr BP, respectively, together with a relatively low sea level. Comparison of the relative sea level (RSL) record of the NDG wetland with similar records from other coastal regions in East Asia during the 4.2 ka event revealed contrasting trends. During 4070–3600 cal yr BP, the tree pollen concentration increased again, indicating that the forest vegetation coverage increased and the climate became wetter. Overall, our results suggest that the 4.2 ka event, as recorded in Bohai Bay, was related to the reduced influence of the western Pacific Ocean Warm Pool and the more frequent occurrence of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation.
High-resolution quantitative vegetation reconstruction in the North China Plain during the early-to-middle Holocene using the REVEALS model
2024, Catena
Understanding the process and pattern of vegetation succession during the early-to-middle Holocene can yield valuable information for better predicting future vegetation evolution. In this study, we investigated the humidity evolution pattern in the North China Plain (NCP) during the early-to-middle Holocene by employing principal component analysis on 93 fossil spectra. Furthermore, by integrating the Regional Estimates of Vegetation Abundance from Large Sites (REVEALS) model, we quantitatively reconstructed the process of vegetation succession and discussed vegetation response to climate change events. Our results indicate that the sample scores of the first principal component axis (PCA axis 1) exhibited a consistent negative bias, implying a gradual rise in regional humidity. The quantitatively reconstructed tree coverage was found to be lower than the uncorrected pollen proportions, while the coverage of herb plants showed a significant increase compared to their respective pollen percentages. In the early and middle Holocene, the vegetation of the NCP succeeded from meadow steppe (10,000 ∼ 8,100 cal yr B.P.) to meadow steppe with pine woodland patches (8,100 ∼ 7,100 cal yr B.P.), then to pine forest (7,100 ∼ 5,300 cal yr B.P.). The quantitatively reconstructed vegetation exhibited the most pronounced response to 8.2 ka climate event, with Asteraceae emerging as the dominant taxa. Furthermore, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of the impact of the 8.2 ka climate event on vegetation in northern China, identifying four distinct types of vegetation feedback: (1) negligible alterations in vegetation, (2) expansion of steppe or desert steppe, (3) proliferation of temperate tree species, and (4) augmentation of meadow steppe.
Quantitative pollen-based paleoclimate reconstructions for the past 18.5 ka in southwestern Yunnan Province, China
2023, Global and Planetary Change
Quantitative reconstruction of past climate plays an important role in understanding global and regional climate changes and validating climate models. Although some important progress has been made in quantitative paleoclimate reconstructions based on terrestrial records in the Indian summer monsoon region, high-resolution quantitative studies spanning the last ∼20 ka are still relatively sparse with differing results. This study presents high-resolution quantitative variations in mean temperature of the coldest month (MTCM, the first controlling factor of the regional vegetation), mean annual temperature (MAT, the second controlling factor), and mean annual precipitation (MAP) from Lake Tengchongqinghai in southwestern China, based on an updated modern pollen dataset and the fossil pollen record spanning the last 18.5 ka. The results show that temperature and precipitation increased gradually from 18.5 ka, and peaked from 7.2 to 4.5 ka when MAT was on average 1.0 °C higher than the modern observational value (14.5 °C), corresponding to the mid-Holocene thermal maximum (HTM), and then decreased gradually. The total reconstructed ranges are between −2.2 and 9.2 °C for MTCM, 7.7 and 17.2 °C for MAT, and 840 and 1300 mm for MAP. On top of this overall climate trend, seven abrupt cold and dry events were detected during the periods of 16.2–14.8 ka, 12.8–11.5 ka, ∼11.1 ka, 9.1–8.4 ka, ∼7.7 ka, 4.3–3.7 ka, and 0.68–0.009 ka (1270–1950 CE). The results of this quantitative reconstruction were validated by both statistical and ecological evaluations. We conclude that the trend of climatic change since 18.5 ka in this study area was primarily driven by June, July, August, and September solar insolation and changes in radiative forcing and greenhouse gas concentrations. The abrupt changes may be caused by changes in the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation, solar activity, the position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone, and volcanic activity.

View all citing articles on Scopus

View full text

Spatial and temporal characteristics of the precipitation response to the 4.2 ka event in the Asian summer monsoon region

Highlights

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Study area

Sediment coring

Lithology and chronology

Paleoclimatic implications of the pollen record from Yazihai Lake

Conclusions

Data availability

Declaration of Competing Interest

Acknowledgements

Quat. Res.

Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta

Quat. Res.

Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.

Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.

Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.

Org. Geochem.

Quat. Sci. Rev.

Quat. Res.

Quat. Sci. Rev.

Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol.

Adv. Ecol. Res.

Quat. Int.

Quat. Sci. Rev.

Quat. Int.

Quat. Sci. Rev.

Quat. Sci. Rev.

Quat. Sci. Rev.

An abrupt shift in the Indian Monsoon 4000 years ago

Geophys. Monogr. Ser.

A pervasive millennial-scale cycle in North Atlantic Holocene and glacial climates

Science

Persistent solar influence on North Atlantic climate during the Holocene

Science

A severe centennial-scale drought in mid-continental North America 4200 years ago and apparent global linkages

The Holocene

Late quaternary volcanic modulation of Milankovitch climate forcing

Theor. Appl. Climatol.

A record of rapid Holocene climate change preserved in hyrax middens from southwestern Africa

Geology

Holocene environmental change inferred from a high-resolution pollen record, Lake Zhuyeze, arid China

The Holocene

The 4.2 ka event in East Asian monsoon region, precisely reconstructed by multi-proxies of stalagmite

Clim. Past Discuss

Climate change and the collapse of the Akkadian empire: evidence from the deep sea

Geology

El Niño/Southern Oscillation during the 4.2 ka event recorded by growth rates of corals from the North South China Sea

Acta Oceanol. Sin.

Cultural responses to climate change during the late Holocene

Science

The East Asian summer monsoon: an overview

Meteorog. Atmos. Phys.

Abrupt weakening of the summer monsoon in northwest India ~4100 yr ago

Geology

Late Holocene drought responsible for the collapse of Old-World civilizations is recorded in an Italian cave flowstone

Geology

Textbook of Pollen Analysis

Connecting the Atlantic-sector and the North Pacific (Mt Logan) ice core stable isotope records during the Holocene: the role of El Niño

The Holocene

Some Problems on East Asia Monsoon

Modulation of the relationship between ENSO and its combination mode by the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation

J. Clim.

Solar influences on climate over the Atlantic/ European sector

AIP Conf. Proc.

Tilia Version 2.6.1

Prospects of Mayinghai wetland

Temperature evolution from the δ18O record of Hani peat, northeast China, in the last 14000 years

Sci. China Ser. D Earth Sci.

Changes in the influence of the western Pacific subtropical high on Asian summer monsoon rainfall in the late 1990s

Clim. Dyn.

The δ18O record along the Greenland Ice Core Project deep ice core and the problem of possible Eemian climatic instability

J. Geophys. Res.

Interannual and decadal covariabilities in East Asian and Western North Pacific summer rainfall for 1979–2016

Clim. Dyn.

Temperature evolution from the δ¹⁸O record of Hani peat, northeast China, in the last 14000 years

The δ¹⁸O record along the Greenland Ice Core Project deep ice core and the problem of possible Eemian climatic instability