Introduction

In 2016, Dr Astrid Steele argued in The Journal of Science Teacher Education that there was the “need for a moral component for science education”(¹:357). She further stated that an ethical framework would “inform decisions and directions of [STEM] teachers, and teacher educators”(¹:359). Concurring, an innovative new design of the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements has been created which facilitates both ethics and chemistry education in secondary schools as well as universities (Figure 1). Specifically, with the new periodic table, STEM content aligns with STSE (Science and Technology on Society and Environment) content, facilitating a curricular pathway to integrate discussions of ethics into the teaching of chemistry. 2019 was declared the International Year of the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements by the United Nations(²), thus the timely creation of this new table for STEM is fitting. [Insert Figure 1]

Periodic Table of Chemical Elements and Ethics (PETE) 

The Evolution of the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements

What is known today as the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements had its origination in the mid-1800s by several scientists, including chemist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev and physician Julius Lothar Meyer. Even the contributions and ultimate authorship credit of the table is an ethical issue worthy of debate(³). Due to the table’s unique ability to be a visual teaching tool, many variations have been created. These variations are notably different from the original in that they do not aim to also teach chemistry concurrently, but rather the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements becomes only a geometric template with the chemistry content removed. Such examples include the Periodic Table of the Presidents (https://periodicpresidents.com/product/ptotp/), Periodic Table of Figures of Speech (https://visual.ly/community/infographic/education/periodic-table-figures-speech), and the Periodic Table of Musical Instruments (https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/1913274728/periodic-table-of-musical-instruments).

Meet PETE

Presented here is a newly designed Periodic Table of Chemical Elements termed the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements and Ethics [PETE.] PETE retains the standard features of the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements(⁴) (i.e., atomic number, element symbol, element name, atomic mass) while pairing one word relating to ethics or research ethics along with the chemical element. The word pairing aligns to the letters of the element symbol (118 unique pairs). In this way, the geometric layout and scientific content of the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements are retained and visually intact, and the ethics content is added.

Some of the word-element pairs have an immediate ethical connection. For example, potassium (element 19, symbol K) is paired with the ethics word “kind”. In this context, students could explore the case of three authors who unkindly plagiarized the work of others who had also researched potassium(⁵). With regard to element 98 (Californium, symbol Cf), this is paired with the ethics word “confidentiality” and students could explore the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Aviation Safety Reporting System(⁶) in the context of Californium’s use in the detection of aircraft metal fatigue. Copper (element 29, symbol Cu) is paired with the ethics word “culture” and this can be explored in the context of mining harms to indigenous peoples(⁷). For the word-element pairings that do not [currently] have direct ethical connections, analysis of the pairings in the context of element groups and historical cases is proposed.

Teaching chemistry involves exploring the chemical elements according to their group (vertical column of elements that generally have similar physical and chemical properties), period (horizontal row of elements that have the same number of atomic orbitals), and blocks (table segments relating to electrons). Table 1 collates the ethics words according to element group to facilitate a potential curricular package that can further pair with a chemistry-related ethics case(⁸) that either the teacher presents for analysis, or that the students search for using the Internet as part of an individual or small group project. Reflective writing could also be added in addition to case discussions(⁹). Online sources for case studies are presented in Table 2. [Insert Table 1 and Table 2]

Examples for connecting elements to cases include the following: Strontium (element 39, group 2) could be discussed along with concepts in ethics and nuclear chemistry, specifically, balancing benefits and risks in various settings (medicine, war) and the careful use of mitigation to minimize harm(¹⁰). Carbon (element 6, group 14) could be discussed in the context of the ethics of the Pheramor dating app (https://www.pheramor.com/), specifically exploring how the concepts of sincerity, genuineness, soundness and evidenced-based science thread among marketing of “health” and social apps. Silver (element 47, group 11) could be discussed in the context of the ethical complexity of silver nanoparticles, raising concerns about regulations and authorized use (medical use in hospitals vs personal use in socks)(¹¹). Manganese (element 25, group 7) could be discussed in the context of the improperly formulated metal storage vats of the 1919 catastrophic molasses flood, along with the concepts of reliability and professionalism (a synonym for manners)(¹²). The level of complexity of cases and concepts should be steered by the teacher during curriculum development so as to match the learning environment (secondary vs higher education).

Why Bring Ethics to Chemistry?

The European Chemical Society established the Working Party on Ethics in Chemistry(¹³) with objectives that include increasing the awareness of the moral complexity of chemistry activities(¹⁴). More specifically, they view the ethical issues as crossing several domains, including good scientific practice, publishing, chemical safety (inside and outside the laboratory), chemical synthesis, education, mentoring, and sustainability(¹⁴). Other issues in chemistry include professionalism(¹⁵,¹⁶) and dual use technologies(¹¹).

The ALL European Academies Permanent Working Group on Science and Ethics argued in their statement on Ethics Education in Science(¹⁷), that ethics education should include the ethical aspects of how society interconnects with science. Education about the ethical connections in chemistry has also been promoted by others(¹⁸). Yet while the Working Group’s focus is the university setting, it seems appropriate to begin these discussions prior to university, where early learners are forming their attitudes, values, and behaviors.

Indeed, the many examples of ethics cases illustrate there are frequent possibilities for ethical dilemmas in the field of chemistry. Memorization of element symbols, atomic numbers and atomic mass, are devoid of the innate contextual connection of chemistry to society, and the ethical matters therein. The use of the PETE in chemistry education is a potential tool for luminating the connection and facilitating discussion and deconstruction. When students make links to real world cases, this can help chemistry seem real and alive, and there is support for this ethics teaching method among chemistry educators(¹⁹). For the students who become scientists, “[they] have an obligation to further the conversation about the implications of their work, because they possess more information about the advances that create these ethical questions”(²⁰:59).

A potential limitation of this work is that the ethics words chosen for the PETE table are generally positive or neutral, rather than negative. For example, element 87 (francium, Fr) was assigned the ethics word “FAIR” rather than “FRAUD.” Similarly, element 27 (cobalt, Co) was assigned “COLLEGIAL” rather than “CONFLICT OF INTEREST”. The PETE table is intentionally created with a positive tone to show the beneficent aspects of ethics; however, through case discussions, the negative aspects of ethical dilemmas will also emerge. For example, when discussing element 82 (lead, Pb, group 14, ethics word “publish”) chemistry teachers can include the concept of plagiarism. This notably links to other ethics words in group 14, such as “COURAGE” and “GENUINE”. Another potential limitation of this work is that it has not been formally studied as a curriculum tool. It is hoped that the publication of PETE in open-access form will encourage teachers to use it and assess its value with empirical research methods.