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Flocking in birds is associated with diet, foraging substrate, timing of activity, and life history

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Abstract

The adaptive significance of flocking in birds has been long debated. In particular, the formation of flocks is thought to increase foraging efficiency and reduce predation pressure. Such benefits can compensate for the costs of flocking including increased competition for resources. The evolution of flocking among species is thus likely shaped by ecological factors related to food abundance and distribution and the level of predation risk experienced during foraging. Comparative analyses have been particularly helpful to identify ecological correlates of group living in many taxa. Yet, no comprehensive comparative analysis of flocking at the species level has been performed in birds using a phylogenetic framework. I conducted a phylogenetically-based comparative analysis of flocking using a large number of species (> 1000) from different families found across the world and examined the effect of many ecological and life history variables related to food distribution and abundance and predation risk. The analysis revealed that flocking at the species level can be predicted reasonably well (R2 = 28%) from a set of ecological and life history variables including diet, timing of activity, foraging substrate, clutch size, and annual adult survival. In particular, flocking was more prevalent in species with a plant diet, in aquatic species, and in species with fast life histories. The results generally support the idea that resource abundance and distribution and perceived predation risk during foraging have shaped the evolution of flocking in birds.

Significance statement

Why birds form flocks during foraging has been long debated. Flocking like other types of group living has probably been shaped over evolutionary times by ecological factors related to food abundance and distribution and predation risk while foraging. Comparative analyses have identified several ecological correlates of group living in many taxa but have yet to be performed comprehensively in birds. Here, I conducted a phylogenetically-based comparative analysis of flocking using a large number of species (> 1000) found across the world to examine the effect of many ecological and life history variables related to food distribution and abundance and predation risk. The analysis revealed that flocking was more prevalent in species with a plant diet, in aquatic species, and in species with slow life histories. The results generally support the idea that resource abundance and distribution and perceived predation risk during foraging have shaped the evolution of flocking in birds.

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Data availability

The dataset in Excel format is available as Supporting Information (Table S1).

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    Guy Beauchamp

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Beauchamp, G. Flocking in birds is associated with diet, foraging substrate, timing of activity, and life history. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 76, 74 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-022-03183-9

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