ReviewOstracism and social exclusion: Implications for separation, social isolation, and loss
Introduction
Although the idea of the need to belong as a basic human motive has existed in psychology for decades, the study of ostracism—being ignored and excluded by one or more others—has become a major topic in social psychology only over the last 25 years or so. To at least some extent, the dramatic upsurge in interest in this general topic can be attributed to an influential article by Baumeister and Leary [1], which presented convincing evidence that threats to our sense of belonging have effects that are harmful both psychologically and physically. The research specifically on ostracism has consistently supported this conclusion. Whereas ostracism often involves an intentional act of social exclusion, studies suggest that people may still feel the pain caused by ostracism [2] even when they are targeted indiscriminately, which actually may happen more often [3]. For this reason, the work on ostracism offers insights that can help us understand the likely consequences of social isolation—even when it is not the result of one individual seeking to do social harm to another.
Section snippets
The temporal need-threat model of ostracism
The temporal need-threat model of proposed by Williams [4] has served as the theoretical framework for much of the research on ostracism (see Figure 1). The model proposes that one's reaction to ostracism happens in three stages: an immediate, reflexive stage; a coping, or reflective stage; and a long-term, resignation stage.
During the initial stage, ostracism serves to signal social danger. Because it is adaptive to detect ostracism quickly, the person's response is reflexive in nature, and
Implications for separation, social isolation, and loss
Whereas most of the early research on ostracism focused on the immediate or short-term impact of ostracism on individual targets [13∗, 14, 15], more recent research has shifted attention to longer-term consequences [10,11] and possible short-term interventions to speed recovery [16] (presence of dog) [17], (photos of loved ones) [18], (parasocial stimuli) [19]; (prayer or self-affirmation) [20], (focused attention) [21]; (comfort food)]. Most people experience daily episodes of often brief and
Possible interventions to reduce a prolonged sense of separation, isolation, and loss
Research on ways of dealing with ostracism in order to mitigate its negative impact has begun to accumulate. It is unlikely that ostracism can be eradicated, and perhaps it should not be. It serves the function of increasing homogeneity, civility, and responsibility in groups, and it is ingrained in all social animals. Perhaps the basic awareness generated by articles and media attention on ostracism and the silent treatment can decrease its use by those who are inclined to use it habitually,
Conclusions
Ostracism is painful and threatens fundamental needs that are all associated with separation, isolation, and loss. Even mild instantiations of ostracism have powerful and detrimental effects. Whereas most daily instances of ostracism can be only momentarily distressing, various factors, both internal and external to the individual, can prolong its effects, increasing the likelihood that coping will give way to resignation. Research on preventing this passage from reflection and coping to
Conflict of interest statement
Nothing declared.
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Showing with whom I belong: The desire to belong publicly on social media
2023, Computers in Human BehaviorSelf-compassion manipulation regulates affect and aggressive inclinations in the context of social rejection
2023, Personality and Individual DifferencesCitation Excerpt :Research illustrates that social rejection tends to increase negative affect (Beekman et al., 2015; Buckley et al., 2004; Rajchert et al., 2019; Smart Richman & Leary, 2009) and become a threat to the fundamental needs for belongingness, self-esteem, being recognized as existing, and being in control (Ren et al., 2018; Williams & Nida, 2022).
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