1932

Abstract

This article reviews the current state of knowledge and promising new directions concerning the psychology of pandemics. Pandemics are disease outbreaks that spread globally. Historically, psychological factors have been neglected by researchers and health authorities despite evidence that pandemics are, to a large extent, psychological phenomena whereby beliefs and behaviors influence the spreading versus containment of infection. Psychological factors are important in determining () adherence to pandemic mitigation methods (e.g., adherence to social distancing), () pandemic-related social disruption (e.g., panic buying, racism, antilockdown protests), and () pandemic-related distress and related problems (e.g., anxiety, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, prolonged grief disorder). The psychology of pandemics has emerged as an important field of research and practice during the coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. As a scholarly discipline, the psychology of pandemics is fragmented and diverse, encompassing various psychological subspecialties and allied disciplines, but is vital for shaping clinical practice and public health guidelines for COVID-19 and future pandemics.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-072720-020131
2022-05-09
2024-03-29
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/clinpsy/18/1/annurev-clinpsy-072720-020131.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-072720-020131&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Ahmed H, Patel K, Greenwood DC, Halpin S, Lewthwaite P et al. 2020. Long-term clinical outcomes in survivors of severe acute respiratory syndrome and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus outbreaks after hospitalisation or ICU admission: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Rehabil. Med. 52:jrm00063
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Albott CS, Wozniak JR, McGlinch BP, Wall MH, Gold BS, Vinogradov S. 2020. Battle Buddies: rapid deployment of a psychological resilience intervention for health care workers during the COVID-19 pandemic. Anesth. Analg. 131:43–54Describes military applications for improving the resilience of health care workers.
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Amanvermez Y, Rahmadiana M, Karyotaki E, de Wit L, Ebert DD et al. 2020. Stress management interventions for college students: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin. Psychol. Sci. Pract.e12342 In press
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Arora T, Grey I, Östlundh L, Lam KBH, Omar OM, Arnone D 2020. The prevalence of psychological consequences of COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. J. Health Psychol. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105320966639
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  5. Asmundson GJG, Paluszek MM, Landry CA, Rachor GS, McKay D, Taylor S 2020. Do pre-existing anxiety-related and mood disorders differentially impact COVID-19 stress responses and coping?. J. Anxiety Disord. 74:102271
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Asmundson GJG, Paluszek MM, Taylor S. 2021. Real versus illusory personal growth in response to stressors of the COVID-19 pandemic. J. Anxiety Disord. 81:102418
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Asmundson GJG, Taylor S. 2020. Coronaphobia revisited: a state-of-the-art on pandemic-related fear, anxiety, and stress. J. Anxiety Disord. 76:102326
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Bachem R, Casey P. 2018. Adjustment disorder: a diagnosis whose time has come. J. Affect. Disord. 227:243–53
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Baldwin PC. 2003. How night air became good air, 1776–1930. Environ. Hist. 8:412–29
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Ball P, Maxmen A. 2020. The epic battle against coronavirus misinformation and conspiracy theories. Nature 581:371–74
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Becker KM. 2020. More than 200 COVID-19 cases linked to Fitchburg church. NBC News Novemb. 7. https://www.nbcboston.com/news/local/more-than-200-covid-19-cases-linked-to-fitchburg-church/2225433/?amp
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Bench SW, Lench HC. 2019. Boredom as a seeking state: Boredom prompts the pursuit of novel (even negative) experiences. Emotion 19:242–54
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Berger K. 2020. Seattle struggled with suicide in late stages of the 1918 flu. Crosscut Blog May 7. https://crosscut.com/2020/05/seattle-struggled-suicide-late-stages-1918-flu
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Birrell J, Meares K, Wilkinson A, Freeston M. 2011. Toward a definition of intolerance of uncertainty: a review of factor analytical studies of the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 31:1198–208
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Boguszewski R, Makowska M, Bożewicz M, Podkowińska M. 2020. The COVID-19 pandemic's impact on religiosity in Poland. Religions 11:646
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Bonanno GA, Diminich ED. 2013. Positive adjustment to adversity—trajectories of minimal–impact resilience and emergent resilience. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 54:378–401
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Boylan J, Seli P, Scholer AA, Danckert J. 2021. Boredom in the COVID-19 pandemic: trait boredom proneness, the desire to act, and rule-breaking. Personal. Individ. Differ. 171:110387
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Brandes CM, Herzhoff K, Smack AJ, Tackett JL. 2019. The p factor and the n factor: associations between the general factors of psychopathology and neuroticism in children. Clin. Psychol. Sci. 7:1266–84
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Brehm JW. 1966. A Theory of Psychological Reactance New York: Academic
  20. Bristow NK. 2012. American Pandemic: The Lost World of the 1918 Influenza Epidemic New York: Oxford Univ. Press
  21. CDC (Cent. Dis. Control Prev.) 2020. Overdose deaths accelerating during COVID-19 News Release, Dec. 17 CDC Washington, DC: https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2020/p1218-overdose-deaths-covid-19.html
  22. Chan SM, Chiu FK, Lam CW, Leung PY, Conwell Y. 2006. Elderly suicide and the 2003 SARS epidemic in Hong Kong. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 21:113–18
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Cheng C. 2004. To be paranoid is the standard? Panic responses to SARS out-break in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Asian Perspect 28:67–98
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Chicago Tribune 1918. All who peril health of city to be arrested. Chicago Tribune Oct. 19 13 http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.2920flu.0012.292
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Chor WPD, Ng WM, Cheng L, Situ W, Chong JW et al. 2021. Burnout amongst emergency healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: a multi-center study. Am. J. Emerg. Med. 46:700–2
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Coelho GLH, Vilar R, Hanel PHP, Monteiro RP, Ribeiro MGC, Gouveia VV. 2018. Optimism scale: evidence of psychometric validity in two countries and correlations with personality. Personal. Individ. Differ. 134:245–51
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Cohn SK. 2017. Cholera revolts: a class struggle we may not like. Soc. Hist. 42:162–80
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Connor KM, Davidson JRT. 2003. Development of a new resilience scale: the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depress. Anxiety 18:76–82
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Conversano C. 2019. Common psychological factors in chronic diseases. Front. Psychol. 10:2727
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Crane MA, Shermock KM, Omer SB, Romley JA. 2021. Change in reported adherence to nonpharmaceutical interventions during the COVID-19 pandemic, April–November 2020. JAMA 325:883–85Documents the progressive deterioration in adherence in social distancing, indicative of pandemic fatigue.
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Crosby AW. 2003. America's Forgotten Pandemic: The Influenza of 1918 Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. , 2nd ed..
  32. Czeisler , Lane RI, Petrosky E, Wiley JF, Christensen A et al. 2020. Mental health, substance use, and suicidal ideation during the COVID-19 pandemic—United States, June 24–30, 2020. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 69:1049–57
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Davide P, Andrea P, Martina O, Andrea E, Davide D, Mario A 2020. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on patients with OCD: effects of contamination symptoms and remission state before the quarantine in a preliminary naturalistic study. Psychiatry Res 291:113213
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Dolan B. 2020. Unmasking history: Who was behind the Anti-Mask League protests during the 1918 influenza epidemic in San Francisco?. Perspect. Med. Humanit. 5:19 https://doi.org/10.34947/M7QP4M
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  35. Douglas KM, Uscinski JE, Sutton RM, Cichocka A, Nefes T et al. 2019. Understanding conspiracy theories. Political Psychol 40:3–35
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Duarte D, El-Hagrassy MM, Couto TCE, Gurgel W, Fregni F, Correa H 2020. Male and female physician suicidality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry 77:587–97
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Duncan LA, Schaller M, Park JH. 2009. Perceived vulnerability to disease: development and validation of a 15-item self-report instrument. Personal. Individ. Differ. 47:541–46
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Dutheil F, Aubert C, Pereira B, Dambrun M, Moustafa F et al. 2019. Suicide among physicians and health-care workers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS ONE 14:e0226361
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Farmer R, Sundberg ND. 1986. Boredom proneness—the development and correlates of a new scale. J. Personal. Assess. 50:4–17
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Fergus TA. 2015. Anxiety sensitivity and intolerance of uncertainty as potential risk factors for cyberchondria: a replication and extension examining dimensions of each construct. J. Affect. Disord. 184:305–9
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Fina BA, Wright EC, Rauch SAM, Norman SB, Acierno R et al. 2021. Conducting prolonged exposure for PTSD during the COVID-19 pandemic: considerations for treatment. Cogn. Behav. Pract. 28:4532–42
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Fineberg NA, Van Ameringen M, Drummond L, Hollander E, Stein DJ et al. 2020. How to manage obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) under COVID-19: a clinician's guide from the International College of Obsessive Compulsive Spectrum Disorders (ICOCS) and the Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders Research Network (OCRN) of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology. Compr. Psychiatry 100:152174
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Fung TKF, Namkoong K, Brossard D. 2011. Media, social proximity, and risk: a comparative analysis of newspaper coverage of avian flu in Hong Kong and in the United States. J. Health Commun. 16:889–907
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Galatzer-Levy IR, Huang SH, Bonanno GA 2018. Trajectories of resilience and dysfunction following potential trauma: a review and statistical evaluation. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 63:41–55Presents a comprehensive analysis of the major patterns of resilience and dysfunction after trauma exposure.
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Garcia-Continente X, Serral G, López MJ, Pérez A, Nebot M 2013. Long-term effect of the influenza A/H1N1 pandemic: attitudes and preventive behaviours one year after the pandemic. Eur. J. Public Health 23:679–81
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Gilles I, Bangerter A, Clémence A, Green EGT, Krings F et al. 2013. Collective symbolic coping with disease threat and othering: a case study of avian influenza. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 52:83–102
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Goldberg YK, Eastwood JD, Laguardia J, Danckert J 2011. Boredom: an emotional experience distinct from apathy, anhedonia, or depression. J. Soc. Clin. Psychol. 30:647–66
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Goldman E. 2020. Exaggerated risk of transmission of COVID-19 by fomites. Lancet Infect. Dis. 20:892–93
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Grasso A, Resnati C, Lanza A, Berrino L, Villani R. 2021. Toxicovigilance during COVID-19: attention to poisoning related to disinfection. Minerva Anestesiol. 87:251–52
    [Google Scholar]
  50. He Z, Chen J, Pan K, Yue Y, Cheung T et al. 2020. The development of the “COVID-19 Psychological Resilience Model” and its efficacy during the COVID-19 pandemic in China. Int. J. Biol. Sci. 16:2828–34Describes a state-of-the-art program for providing mental health services during lockdown.
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Herrera-Valdez MA, Cruz-Aponte M, Castillo-Chavez C. 2011. Multiple outbreaks for the same pandemic: Local transportation and social distancing explain the different “waves” of A-H1N1pdm cases observed in México during 2009. Math. Biosci. Eng. 8:21–48
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Honigsbaum M. 2010. The great dread: cultural and psychological impacts and responses to the “Russian” influenza in the United Kingdom, 1889–1893. Soc. Hist. Med. 23:299–319
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Honigsbaum M. 2013.. “ An inexpressible dread”: psychoses of influenza at fin-de-siècle. Lancet 381:988–89
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Honigsbaum M. 2020. Revisiting the 1957 and 1968 influenza pandemics. Lancet 395:1824–26
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Hornsey MJ, Harris EA, Fielding KS 2018. The psychological roots of anti-vaccination attitudes: a 24-nation investigation. Health Psychol 37:307–15Presents a detailed analysis of the motives for vaccination hesitancy.
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Huecker M, Shreffler J, Danzl D. 2021. COVID-19: optimizing healthcare provider wellness and posttraumatic growth. Am. J. Emerg. Med. 46:69394
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Iglewicz A, Shear MK, Reynolds CF3rd, Simon N, Lebowitz B, Zisook S 2020. Complicated grief therapy for clinicians: an evidence-based protocol for mental health practice. Depress. Anxiety 37:90–98
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Infurna FJ, Jayawickreme E. 2019. Fixing the growth illusion: new directions for research in resilience and posttraumatic growth. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 28:152–58
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Irmak C, Murdock MR, Kanuri VK 2020. When consumption regulations backfire: the role of political ideology. J. Mark. Res. 57:966–84
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Janiri D, Carfi A, Kotzalidis GD, Bernabei R, Landi F, Sani G 2021. Posttraumatic stress disorder in patients after severe COVID-19 infection. JAMA Psychiatry 78:567–69Discusses the prevalence of PTSD after recovering from COVID-19, SARS, MERS, or other traumatic events.
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Jasti N, Bhargav H, George S, Varambally S, Gangadhar BN 2020. Tele-yoga for stress management: need of the hour during the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond?. Asian J. Psychiatry 54:102334
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Jung SJ, Lim S-S, Yoon J-H. 2021. Fluctuations in influenza-like illness epidemics and suicide mortality: a time-series regression of 13-year mortality data in South Korea. PLOS ONE 16:e0244596
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Kacem I, Gharbi A, Harizi C, Souissi E, Safer M et al. 2021. Characteristics, onset, and evolution of neurological symptoms in patients with COVID-19. Neurol. Sci. 42:39–46
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Kahlon MK, Aksan N, Aubrey R, Clark N, Cowley-Morillo M et al. 2021. Effect of layperson-delivered, empathy-focused program of telephone calls on loneliness, depression, and anxiety among adults during the COVID-19 pandemic: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry 78:6616–22
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Keane M, Neal T. 2021. Consumer panic in the COVID-19 pandemic. J. Econom. 220:186–105
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Kempińska-Mirosławska B, Woźniak-Kosek A. 2013. The influenza epidemic of 1889–90 in selected European cities—a picture based on the reports of two Poznań daily newspapers from the second half of the nineteenth century. Med. Sci. Monit. 19:1131–41
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Kilgo DK, Yoo J, Johnson TJ. 2019. Spreading Ebola panic: newspaper and social media coverage of the 2014 Ebola health crisis. Health Commun 34:8811–17
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Klemm C, Das E, Hartmann T. 2016. Swine flu and hype: a systematic review of media dramatization of the H1N1 influenza pandemic. J. Risk Res. 19:1–20
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Labine J. 2021. GraceLife church holds secret service after AHS fenced facility for violating public health orders. Edmonton Journal April 12. https://edmontonjournal.com/news/local-news/gracelife-church-holds-secret-service-after-ahs-fenced-facility-for-violating-public-health-orders
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Lewing CA, Caraway SJ. 2019. Psychological reactance as a motivation in psychopathy. Personal. Individ. Differ. 139:355–59
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Lewis D. 2021a. COVID-19 rarely spreads through surfaces. Nature News Feature Jan. 29. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00251-4
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Lewis D. 2021b. Superspreading drives the COVID pandemic—and could help to tame it. Nature News Feature Febr. 23. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00460-x
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Litz BT, Stein N, Delaney E, Lebowitz L, Nash WP et al. 2009. Moral injury and moral repair in war veterans: a preliminary model and intervention strategy. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 29:695–706
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Liu JJW, Ein N, Gervasio J, Battaion M, Reed M, Vickers K 2020. Comprehensive meta-analysis of resilience interventions. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 82:101919
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Lundorff M, Holmgren H, Zachariae R, Farver-Vestergaard I, O'Connor M. 2017. Prevalence of prolonged grief disorder in adult bereavement: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Affect. Disord. 212:138–49
    [Google Scholar]
  76. MacMillan T, Corrigan MJ, Coffey K, Tronnier CD, Wang D, Krase K 2021. Exploring factors associated with alcohol and/or substance use during the COVID-19 pandemic. Int. J. Ment. Health Addict. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00482-y
    [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  77. Mamelund S-E. 2010. The impact of influenza on mental health in Norway, 19721929 Paper Presented at “Historical Influenza Pandemics: Lessons Learned” Meeting and Workshop Copenhagen: May 3–7
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Man S. 2020. Anti-Asian violence and US imperialism. Race Class 62:24–33
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Manning S, Barry T, Wilson N, Baker M. 2010. Follow-up study showing post-pandemic decline in hand sanitiser use, New Zealand, December 2009. Eurosurveillance 15:19466
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Martarelli CS, Pacozzi SG, Bieleke M, Wolff W. 2021. High trait self-control and low boredom proneness help COVID-19 homeschoolers. Front. Psychol. 12:594256
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Maslach C, Leiter MP. 2016. Understanding the burnout experience: recent research and its implications for psychiatry. World Psychiatry 15:103–11
    [Google Scholar]
  82. McMeekin J, Shah A. 2020. FDA protects patients and consumers from fraud during COVID-19. FDA Voices on Consumer Safety and Enforcement July 20. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/fda-voices/fda-protects-patients-and-consumers-fraud-during-covid-19
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Mollica RF, Augusterfer EF, Fricchione GL, Graziano S. 2020. New self-care protocol Pract. Guide, Harvard/MGH Trauma Prog. Boston, MA: https://hprtselfcare.org Presents a detailed protocol for managing burnout among health care workers.
  84. Morgantini LA, Naha U, Wang H, Francavilla S, Acar Ö et al. 2020. Factors contributing to healthcare professional burnout during the COVID-19 pandemic: a rapid turnaround global survey. PLOS ONE 15:e0238217
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Mortier P, Vilagut G, Ferrer M, Serra C, Dios Molina J et al. 2021. Thirty-day suicidal thoughts and behaviors among hospital workers during the first wave of the Spain Covid-19 outbreak. Depress. Anxiety 38:528–44
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Moutier CY, Myers MF, Feist JB, Feist JC, Zisook S. 2021. Preventing clinician suicide: a call to action during the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond. Acad. Med. 96:624–28
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Murray DR, Schaller M. 2012. Threat(s) and conformity deconstructed: perceived threat of infectious disease and its implications for conformist attitudes and behavior. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 42:180–88
    [Google Scholar]
  88. O'Shea N. 2020. Covid-19 and the nation's mental health Brief. Cent. Ment. Health London, UK: https://www.centreformentalhealth.org.uk/sites/default/files/publication/download/CentreforMentalHealth_COVID_MH_Forecasting3_Oct20_0.pdf
  89. Phoenix Australia 2020. Moral stress amongst heathcare workers during COVID-19: a guide to moral injury Guide, Phoenix Australia/Can Cent. Excell Melbourne, Aust: https://www.phoenixaustralia.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Moral-Stress-Healthcare-Workers-COVID-19-Guide-to-Moral-Injury.pdf
  90. Pietrzak RH, Tsai J, Southwick SM. 2021. Association of symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder with posttraumatic psychological growth among US veterans during the COVID-19 pandemic. JAMA Netw. Open 4:e214972
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Prati G, Mancini AD. 2021. The psychological impact of COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns: a review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies and natural experiments. Psychol. Med. 51:201–11
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Radeloff D, Papsdorf R, Uhlig K, Vasilache A, Putnam K, von Klitzing K 2021. Trends in suicide rates during the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions in a major German city. Epidemiol. Psychiatr. Sci. 30:e16
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Regan T, Harris B, Van Loon M, Nanavaty N, Schueler J et al. 2020. Does mindfulness reduce the effects of risk factors for problematic smartphone use? Comparing frequency of use versus self-reported addiction. Addict. Behav. 108:106435
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Rettie H, Daniels J. 2021. Coping and tolerance of uncertainty: predictors and mediators of mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. Am. Psychol. 76:3427–37
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Richter D, Riedel-Heller S, Zuercher S. 2021. Mental health problems in the general population during and after the first lockdown phase due to the SARS-Cov-2 pandemic: rapid review of multi-wave studies. Epidemiol. Psychiatr. Sci. 30:e27
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Robillard R, Daros AR, Phillips JL, Porteous M, Saad M et al. 2021. Emerging new psychiatric symptoms and the worsening of pre-existing mental disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic: a Canadian multisite study. Can. J. Psychiatry 66:9815–26
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Rogers JP, Chesney E, Oliver D, Pollak TA, McGuire P et al. 2020. Psychiatric and neuropsychiatric presentations associated with severe coronavirus infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis with comparison to the COVID-19 pandemic. Lancet Psychiatry 7:611–27
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Rosser BA. 2018. Intolerance of uncertainty as a transdiagnostic mechanism of psychological difficulties: a systematic review of evidence pertaining to causality and temporal precedence. Cogn. Ther. Res. 43:438–63
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Rozen TD. 2020. Daily persistent headache after a viral illness during a worldwide pandemic may not be a new occurrence: lessons from the 1890 Russian/Asiatic flu. Cephalalgia 40:1406–9
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Rubin GJ, Amlôt R, Page L, Wessely S 2009. Public perceptions, anxiety, and behaviour change in relation to the Swine flu outbreak: cross sectional telephone survey. Br. Med. J. 339:2651
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Schaller M, Park JH. 2011. The behavioral immune system (and why it matters). Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 20:99–103Discusses the conceptual and empirical basis of the behavioral immune system.
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Sharma LP, Balachander S, Thamby A, Bhattacharya M, Kishore C et al. 2021. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the short-term course of obsessive-compulsive disorder. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 209:256–64
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Shear MK, Gribbin CE. 2016. Persistent complex bereavement disorder and its treatment. Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders: A Handbook for Clinicians PR Casey, JJ Strain 133–54 Arlington, VA: Am. Psychiatr. Publ.
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Shihata S, McEvoy PM, Mullan BA, Carleton RN. 2016. Intolerance of uncertainty in emotional disorders: What uncertainties remain?. J. Anxiety Disord. 41:115–24
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Shu-Ru J, Jiun-Hau H. 2012. The prevalence of and factors associated with intention to wear a face mask during an influenza-like illness: a comparison between the influenza A/H1N1 pandemic and the post-pandemic phase. Taiwan J. Public Health 31:570–80
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Skues J, Williams B, Oldmeadow J, Wise L 2016. The effects of boredom, loneliness, and distress tolerance on problem internet use among university students. Int. J. Ment. Health Addict. 14:167–80
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Smith FB. 1995. The Russian influenza in the United Kingdom, 1889–1894. Soc. Hist. Med. 8:55–73
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Snowden FM. 2019. Epidemics and Society: From the Black Death to the Present New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press
  109. Sommerlad A, Marston L, Huntley J, Livingston G, Lewis G et al. 2021. Social relationships and depression during the COVID-19 lockdown: longitudinal analysis of the COVID-19 social study. Psychol. Med. In press
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Sommers J, Vodanovich SJ. 2000. Boredom proneness: its relationship to psychological and physical-health symptoms. J. Clin. Psychol. 56:149–55
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Spinney L. 2017. Pale Rider: The Spanish Flu of 1918 and How It Changed the World London: Vintage
  112. Stack S, Rockett IRH. 2021. Social distancing predicts suicide rates: analysis of the 1918 flu pandemic in 43 large cities. Suicide Life Threat. Behav. 51:83335
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Storch EA, Sheu JC, Guzick AG, Schneider SC, Cepeda SL et al. 2021. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on exposure and response prevention outcomes in adults and youth with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res 295:113597
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Sudre CH, Murray B, Varsavsky T, Graham MS, Penfold RS et al. 2021. Attributes and predictors of long COVID. Nat. Med. 27:626–31
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Taha S, Matheson K, Anisman H. 2013. The 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic: the role of threat, coping, and media trust on vaccination intentions in Canada. J. Health Commun. 18:278–90
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Talkovsky AM, Norton PJ. 2016. Intolerance of uncertainty and transdiagnostic group cognitive behavioral therapy for anxiety. J. Anxiety Disord. 41:108–14
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Taylor S. 2011. Etiology of obsessions and compulsions: a meta-analysis and narrative review of twin studies. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 31:1361–72
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Taylor S. 2017. Clinician's Guide to PTSD New York: Guilford. , 2nd ed..
  119. Taylor S. 2019. The Psychology of Pandemics: Preparing for the Next Global Outbreak of Infectious Disease Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Sch.Offers a comprehensive analysis of the psychology of pandemics, published just before the outbreak of COVID-19.
  120. Taylor S. 2021. Understanding and managing pandemic-related panic buying. J. Anxiety Disord. 78:102364
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Taylor S, Asmundson GJG 2021. Negative attitudes about facemasks during the COVID-19 pandemic: the dual importance of perceived ineffectiveness and psychological reactance. PLOS ONE 16:e0246317
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Taylor S, Fong A, Asmundson GJG. 2021a. Predicting the severity of symptoms of the COVID stress syndrome from personality traits: a prospective network analysis. Front. Psychol. 12:632227
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Taylor S, Landry CA, Paluszek MM, Fergus TA, McKay D, Asmundson GJG. 2020a. COVID stress syndrome: concept, structure, and correlates. Depress. Anxiety 37:706–14
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Taylor S, Landry CA, Paluszek MM, Fergus TA, McKay D, Asmundson GJG. 2020b. Development and initial validation of the COVID Stress Scales. J. Anxiety Disord. 72:102232Describes the rationale, development, and evaluation of the COVID Stress Scales.
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Taylor S, Landry CA, Paluszek MM, Groenewoud R, Rachor GS, Asmundson GJG. 2020c. A proactive approach for managing COVID-19: the importance of understanding the motivational roots of vaccination hesitancy for SARS-CoV2. Front. Psychol. 11: 28.90J
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Taylor S, Paluszek M, Landry C, Rachor GS, Asmundson GJG. 2020d. Worry, avoidance, and coping during the COVID-19 pandemic: a comprehensive network analysis. J. Anxiety Disord. 76:102327
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Taylor S, Paluszek M, Landry C, Rachor GS, Asmundson GJG. 2021b. Predictors of distress and coping during pandemic-related self isolation: the relative importance of personality traits and beliefs about personal threat. Personal. Individ. Differ. 176:110779
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Taylor S, Paluszek M, Rachor GS, McKay D, Asmundson GJG. 2020e. Substance use and abuse, COVID-19-related distress, and disregard for social distancing: a network analysis. Addict. Behav. 114:106754
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Tedeschi RG, Calhoun LG. 2004. Posttraumatic growth: conceptual foundations and empirical evidence. Psychol. Inq. 15:1–18
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Tedeschi RG, Shakespeare-Finch J, Taku K, Calhoun LG. 2018. Posttraumatic Growth: Theory, Research, and Applications New York: Routledge
  131. Temime L, Opatowski L, Pannet Y, Brun-Buisson C, Boëlle PY, Guillemot D. 2009. Peripatetic health-care workers as potential superspreaders. PNAS 106:18420–25
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Teng Z, Pontes HM, Nie Q, Griffiths MD, Guo C. 2021. Depression and anxiety symptoms associated with internet gaming disorder before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: a longitudinal study. J. Behav. Addict. 10:169–80
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Thompson D. 2020. Hygiene theater is a huge waste of time. The Atlantic July 27. https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/07/scourge-hygiene-theater/614599
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Tomes N. 2010.. “ Destroyer and teacher”: managing the masses during the 1918–1919 influenza pandemic. Public Health Rep 125:Suppl. 348–62
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Turner EB. 1919. Discussion on Influenza. Proc. R. Soc. Med. 12:76–90
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Tzeng N-S, Chung C-H, Chang C-C, Chang H-A, Kao Y-C et al. 2020. What could we learn from SARS when facing the mental health issues related to the COVID-19 outbreak? A nationwide cohort study in Taiwan. Transl. Psychiatry 10:339
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Verdery AM, Smith-Greenaway E, Margolis R, Daw J 2020. Tracking the reach of COVID-19 kin loss with a bereavement multiplier applied to the United States. PNAS 117:17695–701
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Vink M, Vink-Niese A. 2020. Could cognitive behavioural therapy be an effective treatment for long COVID and post COVID-19 fatigue syndrome? Lessons from the Qure study for Q-fever fatigue syndrome. Healthcare 8:552
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Wahlund T, Mataix-Cols D, Olofsdotter Lauri K, de Schipper E, Ljótsson B et al. 2020. Brief online cognitive behavioural intervention for dysfunctional worry related to the COVID-19 pandemic: a randomised controlled trial. Psychother. Psychosom. 90:191–99
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Wasserman IM. 1992. The impact of epidemic, war, prohibition and media on suicide: United States, 1910–1920. Suicide Life Threat. Behav. 22:240–54
    [Google Scholar]
  141. WHO (World Health Organ.) 2019a. Burnout. ICD-11 for Morbidity and Mortality Statistics Version 05/2021 Geneva: WHO https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/129180281
    [Google Scholar]
  142. WHO (World Health Organ.) 2019b. Ten threats to global health in 2019 Spotlight WHO, Geneva https://www.who.int/news-room/spotlight/ten-threats-to-global-health-in-2019
  143. WHO (World Health Organ.) 2020. Pandemic fatigue: reinvigorating the public to prevent COVID-19 Policy Framew. WHO Reg. Off. Eur. Copenhagen: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/335820/WHO-EURO-2020-1160-40906-55390-eng.pdf
  144. WHO (World Health Organ.) 2021. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) Advice for Public, Oct. 1 WHO Geneva: https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public
    [Google Scholar]
  145. Wu X, Kaminga AC, Dai W, Deng J, Wang Z et al. 2019. The prevalence of moderate-to-high posttraumatic growth: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Affect. Disord. 243:408–15
    [Google Scholar]
  146. Xuereb S, Kim HS, Clark L, Wohl MJA 2021. Substitution behaviors among people who gamble during Covid-19 precipitated casino closures. Int. Gambl. Stud. 21:41125
    [Google Scholar]
  147. Yang X-J, Liu Q-Q, Lian S-L, Zhou Z-K. 2020. Are bored minds more likely to be addicted? The relationship between boredom proneness and problematic mobile phone use. Addict. Behav. 108:106426
    [Google Scholar]
  148. Yarrington JS, Lasser J, Garcia D, Vargas JH, Couto DD et al. 2021. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health among 157,213 Americans. J. Affect. Disord. 286:64–70
    [Google Scholar]
  149. Yuan K, Gong Y-M, Liu L, Sun Y-K, Tian S-S et al. 2021. Prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder after infectious disease pandemics in the twenty-first century, including COVID-19: a meta-analysis and systematic review. Mol. Psychiatry 26:498298
    [Google Scholar]
  150. Yuan Y. 2021. Mindfulness training on the resilience of adolescents under the COVID-19 epidemic: a latent growth curve analysis. Personal. Individ. Differ. 172:110560
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-072720-020131
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error