Abstract
We sought to catalog ways in which law enforcement personnel (LEP) interact with sexual and gender minority (SGM) people and identify LEP behaviors associated with positive and negative SGM experiences. In Study 1, 160 SGM individuals from one community responded to open-ended survey questions in which they described positive and negative experiences with LEP. Qualitative content analysis yielded three categories of positive and six categories of negative characteristics of experiences with LEP. In Study 2, responses from Study 1 were used to develop a 30-item preliminary version of the INDIGO, an inventory of SGM people’s experiences with LEP; the preliminary INDIGO was piloted with 59 participants from selected communities in the nine US Census divisions to gain perspectives of SGM people in a diverse range of geographic and political environments. Participant feedback was used to add and revise inventory items. In Study 3, the revised 51-item INDIGO was tested with a national sample of 394 SGM people to assess characteristics of SGM people’s perceived positive and negative experiences with LEP. Among the most frequently endorsed LEP practices, 10 were significantly associated with positive experiences (e.g., shared information about the legal process) and 14 were significantly associated with negative experiences (e.g., rude, mean, or judgmental demeanor). Exploratory analyses identified four LEP practices that were reported more commonly by SGM people of color compared to White SGM participants. Comparisons of select INDIGO items to attitudes toward LEP items supported concurrent validity of the INDIGO. Implications for training and community policing are discussed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of Data
Participants were promised confidentiality due to the sensitive nature of this research. As such, the database for these studies is not publicly available.
Code Availability
Not applicable.
References
Adler NE, Epel ES, Castellazzo G, Ickovics JR (2000) Relationship of subjective and objective social status with psychological and physiological functioning: Preliminary data in healthy, White women. Health Psychol 19(6):586–592. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0278-6133.19.6.586
Beatty PC, Willis GB (2007) Research synthesis: The practice of cognitive interviewing. Public Opin Q 71(2):287–311. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfm006
Bernstein M, Kostelac C (2002) Lavender and blue: Attitudes about homosexuality and behavior toward lesbians and gay men among police officers. J Contemp Crim Justice 18(3):302–328. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986202018003006
Bostwick v Clayton County, Georgia. 590 U.S. (2020). https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/19pdf/17-1618_hfci.pdf
Briones-Robinson R, Powers RA, Socia KM (2016) Sexual orientation bias crimes: Examination of reporting, perception of police bias, and differential police response. Crim Justice Behav 43:1688–1709. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854816660583
Copen CE, Chandra A, Febo-Vazquez I (2016) Sexual behavior, sexual attraction, and sexual orientation among adults aged 18–44 in the United States: Data from the 2011–2013 National Survey of Family Growth. Natl Health Stat Rep 88:1–14
Correia ME (2010) Determinants of attitudes toward police of Latino immigrants and non-immigrants. J Crim Just 38(1):99–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2009.11.012
Cheung JH, Burns DK, Sinclair RR, Sliter M (2017) Amazon Mechanical Turk in organizational psychology: An evaluation and practical recommendations. J Bus Psychol 32(4):347–361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-016-9458-5
Dario LM, Fradella HF, Verhagen M, Parry MM (2020) Assessing LGBT people’s perceptions of police legitimacy. J Homosex 67(7):885–915. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2018.1560127
DeBlaere C, Singh AA, Wilcox MM, Cokley KO, Delgado Romero EA, Scalise DA, Shawahin L (2019) Social justice in counseling psychology: Then, now, and looking forward. Couns Psychol 47:938–962. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000019893283
Durso LE, Gates GJ (2012) Serving our youth: Findings from a National Survey of Service Providers working with lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth who are homeless or at risk of becoming homeless. Los Angeles: The Williams Institute with True Colors Fund and The Palette Fund
Feinstein BA (2020) The rejection sensitivity model as a framework for understanding sexual minority mental health. Arch Sex Behav 49:2247–2258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-1428-3
Fileborn B (2019) Policing youth and queerness: the experiences and perceptions of young LGBTQ+ people from regional Victoria. Curr Issues Crim Just 31(3):433–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2019.1633727
Finneran C, Stephenson R (2013) Gay and bisexual men’s perceptions of police helpfulness in response to male-male intimate partner violence. Western Journal of Emergency 14(4):354–362. https://doi.org/10.5811/westjem.2013.3.15639
Fryer RG Jr (2019) An empirical analysis of racial differences in police use of force. J Polit Econ 127(3):1210–1261. https://doi.org/10.1086/701423
Galvan FH, Bazargan M (2012) Interactions of Latina transgender women with law enforcement. The Williams Institute. https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/Latina-Trans-Women-Law-Enforcement-Apr-2012.pdf
Gau JM (2010) A longitudinal analysis of citizens' attitudes about police. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 33(2):236–252. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639511011044867
Gillespie W (2008) Thirty-five years after Stonewall: An exploratory study of satisfaction with police among gay, lesbian, and bisexual persons at the 34th annual Atlanta pride festival. J Homosex 55(4):619–647. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918360802421759
Goldberg NG, Mallory C, Hasenbush A, Stemple L, Meyer IH (2019) Police and the Criminalization of LGBT People. Press, New York, Cambridge Univ, pp 374–391
Green KE, Feinstein BA (2012) Substance use in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: an update on empirical research and implications for treatment. Psychol Addict Behav 26(2):265–278. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0025424
Guadalupe-Diaz XL, Jasinski J (2017) ‘I wasn’t a priority, I wasn’t a victim’: Challenges in help seeking for transgender survivors of intimate partner violence. Violence against Women 23:772–792. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801216650288
Guillory J, Wiant KF, Farrelly M, Fiacco L, Alam I, Hoffman L, Crankshaw E, Delahanty J, Alexander TN (2018) Recruiting hard-to-reach populations for survey research: Using Facebook and Instagram advertisements and in-person intercept in LGBT bars and nightclubs to recruit LGBT young adults. J Med Internet Res 20(6):e197. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.9461
Hawdon J, Ryan J (2003) Police-resident interactions and satisfaction with police: An empirical test of community policing assertions. Crim Justice Policy Rev 14(1):55–74. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403402250919
Herek GM (2002) Gender gaps in public opinion about lesbians and gay men. Public Opin Q 66(1):40–66. https://doi.org/10.1086/338409
Hinds L (2007) Building police—Youth relationships: The importance of procedural justice. Youth Justice 7(3):195–209. https://doi.org/10.1177/1473225407082510
Hodge JP, Sexton L (2020) Examining the blue line in the rainbow: the interactions and perceptions of law enforcement among lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer communities. Police Pract Res 21(3):246–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2018.1526686
Hydock C (2018) Assessing and overcoming participant dishonesty in online data collection. Behav Res Methods 50(4):1563–1567. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0984-5
Israel T, Bettergarcia JN, Delucio K, Avellar TR, Harkness A, Goodman JA (2017) Reactions of law enforcement to LGBTQ diversity training. Hum Resour Dev Q 28(2):197–226. https://doi.org/10.1002/HRDQ.21281
Israel T, Choi AY, Goodman JA, Matsuno E, Lin YJ, Kary KG, Merrill CR (2019) Reducing internalized binegativity: Development and efficacy of an online intervention. Psychol Sex Orientat Gend Divers 6(2):149–159. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/sgd0000314
Israel T, Gorcheva R, Burnes TR, Walther WA (2008) Helpful and unhelpful therapy experiences of LGBT clients. Psychother Res 18(3):294–305. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503300701506920
Israel T, Harkness A, Avellar TR, Delucio K, Bettergarcia JN, Goodman JA (2016) LGBTQ-affirming policing: Tactics generated by law enforcement personnel. J Police Crim Psychol 31(3):173–181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-015-9169-2
Israel T, Harkness A, Delucio K, Ledbetter JN, Avellar TR (2014) Evaluation of police training on LGBTQ issues: Knowledge, interpersonal apprehension, and self-efficacy. J Police Crim Psychol 29(2):57–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-013-9132-z
James S, Herman J, Rankin S, Keisling M, Mottet L, Anafi MA (2016) The report of the 2015 US transgender survey. National Center for Transgender Equality. https://transequality.org/sites/default/files/docs/usts/USTS-Full-Report-Dec17.pdf
Kattari SK, Begun S (2017) On the margins of marginalized: Transgender homelessness and survival sex. Affilia 32(1):92–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109916651904
Levay KE, Freese J, Druckman JN (2016) The demographic and political composition of Mechanical Turk samples. Sage Open 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244016636433
Luhur W, Meyer IH, Wilson BDM (2021) Policing LGBQ People. Los Angeles, CA: The Williams Institute
Lyons PM Jr, DeValve MJ, Garner RL (2008) Texas police chiefs’ attitudes toward gay and lesbian police officers. Police Q 11(1):102–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611107302655
Mallory C, Hasenbush A, Sears B (2013) Discrimination against law enforcement officers on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity: 2000 to 2013. The Williams Institute. https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/Law-Enforcement-SOGI-Nov-2013.pdf
Matsuno E, Goodman JA, Israel T, Choi AY, Lin YJ, Kary KG (2020) L. or G. or B. or T.: Screening LGBT participants in psychological research. J Homosex. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2020.1819714
Meyer D (2020) “So Much for Protect and Serve”: Queer Male Survivors’ Perceptions of Negative Police Experiences. J Contemp Crim Justice 36(2):228–250. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986219894430
McCandless S (2018) LGBT homeless youth and policing. Public Integrity 20(6):558–570. https://doi.org/10.1080/10999922.2017.1402738
Miles-Johnson T (2013) Confidence and trust in police: How sexual identity difference shapes perceptions of police. Curr Issues Crim Just 25(2):685–702. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2013.12035990
Miles-Johnson T, Death J (2020) Compensating for Sexual Identity: How LGB and Heterosexual Australian Police Officers Perceive Policing of LGBTIQ+ People. J Contemp Crim Justice 36(2):251–273. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986219894431
Morgan DL (1993) Qualitative content analysis: a guide to paths not taken. Qual Health Res 3(1):112–121
Nadal KL, Quintanilla A, Goswick A, Sriken J (2015) Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer people’s perceptions of the criminal justice system: Implications for social services. J Gay Lesbian Soc Serv 27:457–481. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538720.2015.1085116
Nadal KL, Davidoff KC, Allicock N, Serpe CR, Erazo T (2017) Perceptions of police, racial profiling, and psychological outcomes: A mixed methodological study. J Soc Issues 73(4):808–830. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12249
Nixon TT (2021) Pride in Policing: Perspectives of LGBTQ Police Officers (Master’s thesis, The University of Alabama at Birmingham)
Oaks L, Israel T, Conover KJ, Cogger A, Avellar TR (2019) Community-based participatory research with invisible, geographically-dispersed communities: Partnering with lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer communities on the California central coast. J Soc Action Couns Psychol 11(1):14–32. https://doi.org/10.33043/JSACP.11.1.14-32
Owen SS, Burke TW, Few-Demo AL, Natwick J (2018) Perceptions of the police by LGBT communities. Am J Crim Justice 43(3):668–693. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-017-9420-8
Paolacci G, Chandler J, Ipeirotis PG (2010) Running experiments on Amazon Mechanical Turk. Judgm Decis Mak 5(5):411–419
Peck JH (2015) Minority perceptions of the police: A state-of-the-art review. Policing: An International Journal 38(1):173–203. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-01-2015-0001
Purdie-Vaughns V, Steele CM, Davies PG, Ditlmann R, Crosby JR (2008) Social identity contingencies: How diversity cues signal threat or safety for African Americans in mainstream institutions. J Pers Soc Psychol 94(4):615–630. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.4.615
Reck J (2009) Homeless gay and transgender youth of color in San Francisco: “No one likes street kids”—Even in the Castro. J LGBT Youth 6(2–3):223–242. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361650903013519
Reynolds JJ, Estrada-Reynolds V, Nunez N (2018) Development and validation of the Attitudes Towards Police Legitimacy Scale. Law Hum Behav 42:119–134. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000281
Sausa LA, Keatley J, Operario D (2007) Perceived risks and benefits of sex work among transgender women of color in San Francisco. Arch Sex Behav 36(6):768–777. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9210-3
Scheuerman HL, Parris CL, Faupel AH, Werum R (2020) State-Level Determinants of Hate Crime Reporting: Examining the Impact of Structural and Social Movement Influences. Law & Policy. https://doi.org/10.1111/lapo.12139
Shields DM (2021) Stonewalling in the Brick City: Perceptions of and Experiences with Seeking Police Assistance among LGBTQ Citizens. Social Sciences 10(1):16. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10010016
Smith NA, Sabat IE, Martinez LR, Weaver K, Xu S (2015) A convenient solution: Using MTurk to sample from hard-to-reach populations. Ind Organ Psychol 8(2):220–228. https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2015.29
Somerville P (2009) Understanding community policing. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management 32(2):261–277. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510910958172
Taylor TO, Wilcox MM, Monceaux CP (2020) Race and sexual orientation: An intersectional analysis and confirmatory factor analysis of the Perceptions of Police Scale. Psychol Sex Orientat Gend Divers 7(3):253–264. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/sgd0000392
Terrill W, Ingram JR (2016) Citizen complaints against the police: An eight city examination. Police Q 19(2):150–179. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611115613320
Tucker JM, Brewster MP, Grugan ST, Miller LM, Mapp-Matthews SM (2019) Criminal justice students’ attitudes toward LGBTQ individuals and LGBTQ police officers. Journal of Criminal Justice Education 30(2):165–192. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511253.2018.1456555
U.S. Department of Justice (2021). LGBTQ Liaison Units: Listening, Adjusting, and Meeting Needs. https://cops.usdoj.gov/html/dispatch/06-2021/liason_units.html
Varghese FP, Israel T, Seymour G, Becker Herbst R, Suarez LG, Hargons C (2019) Injustice in the justice system: Reforming inequities for true “justice for all.” Couns Psychol 47:682–740. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000019892329
Wolff KB, Cokely LC (2007) “To protect and to serve?”: An exploration of police conduct in relation to the gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender community. Sex Cult 11(2):1–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-007-9000-z
Wolford-Clevenger C, Flores LY, Bierma S, Cropsey KL, Stuart GL (2021) Minority stress and drug use among transgender and gender diverse adults: A daily diary study. Drug Alcohol Depend 220:108508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108508
Funding
The authors did not receive any grants or external funding for these studies.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics Approval
All procedures performed in these studies were in accordance with our approved Institutional Review Board protocols from the Human Subjects Committee at the University of California, Santa Barbara, and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Consent to Participate
All participants in the studies described in this manuscript provided informed consent to participate.
Consent for Publication
All authors have reviewed this manuscript and have agreed to submit it for publication.
Conflicts of Interest
All of the authors declare that we have no conflicts of interest to disclose.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Goodman, J.A., Israel, T., Avellar, T.R. et al. Sexual and Gender Minorities’ Positive and Negative Experiences with Law Enforcement. J Police Crim Psych (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-022-09496-9
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-022-09496-9