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Review of Acquisition and Signal Processing Methods for Electromagnetic Noise Reduction and Retrieval of Surface Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Parameters

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Abstract

Surface nuclear magnetic resonance (sNMR) is an electromagnetic hydrogeophysical method directly sensitive to liquid phase water in the upper \(\approx \)100 m of the subsurface. For this reason, sNMR is a uniquely capable of unambiguous exploration and quantitative characterization of groundwater and its structural environment in the near-surface. In spite of these physical attributes, the method suffers from notoriously low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) which can limit its application. A large span of research has therefore been dedicated to sNMR developments including instrument innovations, acquisition methodologies and signal processing techniques which improve the SNR of the method and expand its scope of application outside the research world. Towards this goal, we include a description of community-developed best practice techniques and strategies that can be relied upon to successfully gather and analyse sNMR data sets in a production setting. Complementing this, we provide a comprehensive review of past, recent, and on-going approaches that—while not currently widely adopted—present promising features should further research be dedicated to their development. As such, the objective of this paper is to provide both newcomers and specialists of the sNMR method a clear view of the existing signal processing techniques and strategies along with a structured proposition of promising research leads and future perspectives to be explored.

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  • 18 May 2022

    Fig 9 and 10 were incorrectly placed. They are correctly placed under the “Appendices” section.

Notes

  1. High intensity EM radiation at any frequency can saturate receiver instrumentation and obscure all signal due to ‘clipping’.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Geolinks Services Company, 91300, Massy-Palaiseau, France

    Thomas Kremer

  2. Department of Geophysical Engineering, Montana Technical University, Butte, Montana, 59701, USA

    Trevor Irons

  3. Leibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics, Stilleweg 2, 30655, Hannover, Germany

    Mike Müller-Petke

  4. Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Aarhus University, Finlandsgade 22, 8200, Aarhus N, Denmark

    Jakob Juul Larsen

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Appendices

Appendices

Fundamental Frequency Values Around the World

Figure 9 shows the geographical distribution of powerline networks fundamental frequency values around the world. Most countries have a uniform network characterized by only one frequency value, expect for Liberia, Japan and North Korea that have a mixed network with co-existing 50 Hz and 60 Hz fundamental frequency powerlines.

Fig. 9
figure 9

Map representing the nominal fundamental frequency value distribution of powerline networks around the world (IEC\(^1\). Red, blue and green countries are equipped with a 60 Hz, 50 Hz, or mixed (50 Hz / 60 Hz) network, respectively

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Figure 10 shows the different electrical systems used for railway transportation in Europe that may produce harmonic EM noise. Note that this map is only indicative and should not be used as a reference, since different railway systems (e.g., DC systems that do not produce harmonic noise) may coexist within the same country, and new railway systems may have been set-up in the coming years.

Fig. 10
figure 10

Map representing the nominal fundamental frequency value distribution of the main railway systems in Europe (IEC\(^2\) - 2014). Orange colour corresponds to a nominal value of 16.66 Hz and pale beige colours to a value of 50 Hz. Iceland is not equipped with an electrified railway network and the Republic of Ireland possesses a full DC network. Non-European countries are represented in grey

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Kremer, T., Irons, T., Müller-Petke, M. et al. Review of Acquisition and Signal Processing Methods for Electromagnetic Noise Reduction and Retrieval of Surface Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Parameters. Surv Geophys 43, 999–1053 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09695-3

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09695-3

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