Abstract
Surfactants are amphipathic molecules that are generally chemically derived. Compared to these surfactants, biosurfactants have a better environmental profile and are derived from microorganisms. Among the biosurfactants, sophorolipids (SLs) are probably the most promising biosurfactants. In general, the costs of raw materials in the synthesis of biosurfactants accounts for about 10–30% of the total costs. These costs can be reduced to some extent by using industrial by-products as substrates for the synthesis of SLs. In this study, sunflower acid oil (SAO), a by-product of sunflower oil refining, and crude glycerol (so-called “sweetwater”), which is the glycerol-rich solution from the mixed fat hydrolysis reaction, also an industrial by-product, are used for the synthesis of SLs. We obtained comparable yields (0.8/50 mL) to previous reports using a combination of treated SAO (10% w/v) and sweetwater (19% w/v). For the bleaching process, we used 1% and 3% activated earth for normal and heavy treatments over a period of 1 h and 3 h, respectively. Glycerol is inexpensively available in the form of sweetwater from fat-splitting plants and was used as the hydrophilic source. The purification of the SL can be achieved by crystallization at pH 7. The purified SL is analyzed by thin layer chromatography (TLC), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Then, it was incorporated into different liposomal formulations for the encapsulation of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) ibuprofen. The ratio of drug to cholesterol and SL was 1:1:0.5. The liposomal structures were examined for their size of 2 µ by direct light scattering.
About the authors
Sri Dharini Sivagiri is M.Tech (Green Technology) at the Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai.
Suraj N. Mali is M. Pharm (Pharmaceutical Chemistry) at the Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai.
Amit P. Pratap completed his graduation and post graduation in Oil Technology in 2001 and obtained his doctorate degree in 2006 from Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai. He served the department as a ‘Professor J. G. Kane Academic Associate’ for over two years and worked as Assistant Professor over 10 years. At present he is Associate Professor and since 15 years he is involved in the teaching, research and development in the field of vegetable oil based lubricants, additives and biosurfactants. His research interest includes triboapplications of vegetable oils, structural modifications of oils and fats, biosurfactants and specialty products.
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Author contributions: All the authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this submitted manuscript and approved submission.
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Research funding: None declared.
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Conflict of interest statement: The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding this article.
Fermentation conditions
Previously reported conditions
From the previous investigations carried out, it is evident that a high yield of SLs is obtained when both hydrophobic and hydrophilic sources are provided during fermentation. The most commonly used hydrophobic source of SL synthesis is oleic acid together with a hydrophilic source such as glucose. For the synthesis of SLs, yeast extract and urea are generally used as nitrogen sources.
LC-MS of purified SL
ESI tandem mass spectra (MS Q-TOF LC-MS, AGLIENT 6550A) were used to determine the identity and concentration of the compounds within the structure of the SLs. Mass spectrum of positive ions provided by Sophisticated Analytical Instrument Facility (SAIF), IIT Bombay, Mumbai, India was used. A mixture of acetonitrile and methanol was used as the mobile phase for HPLC, which was then analyzed using the mass spectrometer.
The LCMS spectrum of Sophorolipid.
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