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The Association Between Adverse Childhood Experiences, Neuropsychological Deficits, and Experiences of Exclusionary Discipline in Early Childhood

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Abstract

Recent policy briefs have drawn attention to the use of exclusionary discipline in early learning settings; however, little is known about child-level correlates associated with risk of exclusion. This omission is important, as early childhood education may reduce the likelihood of later delinquent and criminal behavior. Additionally, exclusion from early learning may label a child as deviant, contributing to an accumulation of disadvantage that may place the child at greater risk for delinquency and crime over the life-course. The current study applies Moffitt’s (1993) life-course theory to better understand child-level correlates associated with exclusionary discipline in early childhood. Using data from the 2016 National Survey of Children’s Health (N = 5876), results indicate neuropsychological deficits in early childhood are associated with a 1.38 unit increase in odds of removal from early learning environments. Furthermore, in support of Moffitt’s (1993) interactional hypothesis, exposure to adverse experiences (ACEs) was found to moderate the association between neuropsychological deficits and odds of exclusion, such that children with more indicators of neuropsychological deficits and a greater number of ACEs were more likely to experience exclusion than those with fewer ACEs. Implications for policy and directions for future research are discussed.

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Notes

  1. The ACE measure used by the NSCH does not align with the original ACE measure (Anda et al., 1999; Anda et al., 2006). It includes expanded ACEs (e.g., Cronholm et al., 2014) but does not include child maltreatment measures. Though the absence of maltreatment measures is a limitation, such measures would have had to rely on parent reports, which may underestimate abuse and neglect due to social desirability and parents’ fear of consequences (Gilbert et al., 2009; Jaffee et al., 2004).

  2. Though the ACE measure in the NSCH includes a measure assessing lifetime experiences with financial difficulties, a more current measure of income was also included as a control variable. The correlation between the two measures was .33, suggesting the correlation was not strong (Taylor, 1990).

  3. Latent variables were dichotomized at the median to maintain consistency with statistical precedent in the creation of multi-item scales (Iacobucci et al., 2014). To check for sensitivity to alternative cut-off scores, the composite of neuropsychological deficits was also measured using latent variables cut at two standard deviations above the mean. Results did not change substantively using this alternative measurement approach.

  4. Because estimates produced using Firth logistic regressions may introduce bias in the calculation of predicted probabilities (Puhr et al., 2017), predicted probabilities were calculated using logistic regression.

  5. For behavior problems, the RMSEA was .06, the CFI was .97, the TLI was .96, and the composite reliability was .75. For lack of attachment, the RMSEA was .02, the CFI was .99, the TLI was .99, and the composite reliability was .71. For learning problems, the RMSEA was .08, the CFI was .98, the TLI was .97, and the composite reliability was .81 (see Appendices 2 and 3 for more detailed fit information).

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    Abigail Novak

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Appendix

Appendix

Table 3 Detailed description of indicators of neuropsychological deficits
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Table 4 Measurement model results for latent indicators included in the measure of neuropsychological deficits
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Table 5 Factor loadings and Eigen values for latent indicators
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Novak, A. The Association Between Adverse Childhood Experiences, Neuropsychological Deficits, and Experiences of Exclusionary Discipline in Early Childhood. J Dev Life Course Criminology 8, 175–205 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40865-022-00192-0

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