Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Effect of awareness and notification of body-worn cameras on procedural justice, police legitimacy, cooperation, and compliance: Findings from a randomized controlled trial

  • Published:
Journal of Experimental Criminology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Objectives

The study examined the effects of awareness and notification of body-worn cameras (BWCs) on encounter-based citizen perceptions including procedural justice, police lawfulness, compliance with police, and global-level perceptions including police legitimacy, cooperation, and compliance with law.

Methods

A vignette-based cluster randomized controlled trial was conducted. As a cluster, participants were randomly selected and then randomly assigned to one of the four conditions (non-BWC, unawareness of BWC, awareness of BWC, and notification of BWC). Participants in the experimental conditions (i.e., unawareness of BWC, awareness of BWC, and notification of BWC) viewed a video of a real traffic stop in which the officer used a BWC. The data were obtained from a survey about participants’ perceptions. A one-way ANOVA test for bivariate analysis and a hierarchical generalized linear model for multivariate analysis were conducted.

Results

Compared with the control condition, the three experimental conditions significantly improved encounter-based citizen perceptions. Compared with unawareness of BWC, notification of BWC significantly improved the perceptions of procedural justice and police lawfulness, while awareness of BWC significantly improved the perceptions of police lawfulness.

Conclusions

BWC awareness improves citizen encounter-based perceptions. Police should notify citizens of the use of BWCs to increase the effectiveness of BWCs.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. See also Lum et al., (2019, 2020) and Demir (2021) for the studies that focused on the effect of BWCs on police and citizen behavior such as use of force, citizen complaints, and assault, and police perceptions of BWC.

  2. It is important to note that except for one study (Hamm et al., 2019), these studies did not examine the effect of BWCs on citizen perceptions.

  3. The results of G*Power analysis, a free-to-use software that calculates statistical power (Faul et al., 2007), showed that a sample size of 482, with a power of .80 and a two-tailed test with an α level of .05, would be sufficient to detect a small-sized effect (f = .15) for a one-way ANOVA test with four groups (Cohen, 1988) and a small-sized effect (f = .02) for linear multiple regression with 11 predictors.

  4. Before conducting the OLS regression tests, numerical methods (i.e., the Shapiro–Wilk test for normality and the Breusch-Pagan/Cook-Weisberg test for heteroskedasticity) and/or graphical methods were used for each model to test whether the data satisfied the assumptions of the OLS regression for linearity, normality, homoscedasticity, and collinearity (see Fox, 1991). The assumptions for normality were not met, while the distribution of the data for the outcomes deviated slightly from normality. In addition, except for legitimacy, the assumption for homoscedasticity also was not met for the other outcomes. Linearity was not an issue because all of the independent variables were binary variables (see Fox, 1991). Regarding noncollinearity, variation inflation factors (VIFs) and correlation matrices indicated that the VIF was less than 2 and that Pearson’s correlation coefficient was less than 0.70 (r < 0.40), which suggests that multicollinearity was not a concern. Except for the VIF and the correlation matrix (see Appendix 2), the results are not shown. To address non-normality (although slightly deviated) and heteroskedasticity, OLS values were estimated with cluster-robust standard errors (see Fox, 1991).

  5. HGLM involves units of observation at two different levels. Level 1 characteristics explain within-cluster variation, while level 2 characteristics explain between-cluster variation in the dependent variable (Rabe-Hesketh & Skrondal, 2012).

  6. Students within the same class are more likely to be similar to each other than to students in other classes (see Rabe-Hesketh & Skrondal, 2012, p. 1) because students in the same class are highly likely to have same majors/minors and be exposed to similar knowledge, though their perceptions may differ. Students in some majors are more likely to be exposed to issues related to police and therefore may have opinions that differ from students whose majors do not necessitate exposure to police-related issues.

  7. The results were not statistically significant except for two outcomes: procedural justice and legitimacy (see Table 4). The results suggest that there was no significant difference between the use of HGLM and the OLS model for the other outcomes and that either model was appropriate for those outcomes, while HGLM was appropriate for procedural justice and legitimacy.

  8. Exponentiated (B) values, which are interpreted as odds ratios, are reported in Table 4 for interested readers. However, for clarity, the Exp(B) values were not reported in the text.

References

  • Ariel, B. (2016a). The puzzle of police body cams. IEEE Spectrum, 53(7), 32–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ariel, B. (2016b). Increasing cooperation with the police using body worn cameras. Police Quarterly, 19(3), 326–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ariel, B., Farrar, W. A., & Sutherland, A. (2015). The effect of police body-worn cameras on use of force and citizens’ complaints against the police: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 31(3), 509–535.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ariel, B., Mitchell, R. J., Tankebe, J., Firpo, M. E., Fraiman, R., & Hyatt, J. M. (2020). Using wearable technology to increase police legitimacy in Uruguay: The case of body-worn cameras. Law and Social Inquiry-Journal of the American Bar Foundation, 45(1), 52–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ariel, B., Sutherland, A., Henstock, D., Young, J., Drover, P., Sykes, J., Magicks, S., & Henderson, R. (2016). Increases in police use of force in the presence of body-worn cameras are driven by officer discretion: A protocol-based subgroup analysis of ten randomized experiments. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 12(3), 453–463.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ariel, B., Sutherland, A., Henstock, D., Young, J., Drover, P., Sykes, J., Megicks, S., & Henderson, R. (2018). Paradoxical effects of self-awareness of being observed: Testing the effect of police body-worn cameras on assaults and aggression against officers. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 13(52), 1–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Augustyn, M. B. (2016). Updating perceptions of (in)justice. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 53, 255–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barkworth, J. M., & Murphy, K. (2015). Procedural justice policing and citizen compliance behavior: The importance of emotion. Psychology, Crime & Law, 21(3), 254–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bottoms, A., & Tankebe, J. (2012). Beyond procedural justice: A dialogic approach to legitimacy in criminal justice. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 102(1), 119–170.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braga, A., Sousa, W., Coldren, J. R., Jr., & Rodriguez, D. (2018). The effects of body-worn cameras on police activity and police-citizen encounters: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 108(3), 511–538.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. L., & Reisig, M. D. (2020). Procedural injustice, police legitimacy, and officer gender: A vignette-based test of the invariance thesis. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 37(6), 696–710.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cameron, A. C., & Miller, D. L. (2015). A practitioner’s guide to cluster-robust inference. Journal of Human Resources, 50(2), 317–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1966). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Rand McNally.

  • Campbell, M. K., Piaggio, G., Elbourne, D. R., & Altman, D. G. (2012). Consort 2010 statement: Extension to cluster randomised trials. BMJ, 345, e5661. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.e5661

  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum.

  • Clare, J., Henstock, D., McComb, C., Newland, R., Barnes, G. C., Lee, M., & Taylor, E. (2019). Police, public, and arrestee perceptions of body-worn video: A single jurisdictional multiple-perspective analysis. Criminal Justice Review, 44(3), 304–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crow, M. S., Snyder, J., Crichlow, V., & Smykla, J. (2017). Community perceptions of police body-worn cameras. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 44(4), 589–610.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Demir, M. (2019). Citizens’ perceptions of body-worn cameras (BWCs): Findings from a quasi-randomized experimental study. Journal of Criminal Justice, 60, 130–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Demir, M. (2021). Police perceptions of body-worn cameras (BWCs) by type of police agency. Journal of Policing Intelligence and Counter Terrorism, 1–23.  https://doi.org/10.1080/18335330.2021.1962956

  • Demir, M., & Kule, A. (2020). The effect of body-worn cameras on satisfaction and general perceptions of police: Findings from a quasi-randomized controlled trial. European Journal of Criminology. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370820905105

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Demir, M., Braga, A. A., & Apel, R. (2020a). Effects of police body-worn cameras on citizen compliance and cooperation: Findings from a quasi-randomized controlled trial. Criminology and Public Policy, 19(3), 855–882.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Demir, M., Apel, R., Braga, A., Brunson, R., & Ariel, B. (2020b). Body worn cameras, procedural justice, and police legitimacy: A controlled experimental evaluation of traffic stops. Justice Quarterly, 37(1), 53–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duval, T. S., & Wicklund, R. (1972). A theory of objective self-awareness. Academic.

  • Edmonton Police Service [EPS]. (2015). Body worn video: Considering the evidence. Final Report of the Edmonton Police Service body worn video pilot project. Retrieved from https://bja.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh186/files/bwc/pdfs/EdmontonPS_Canada_BWVFinalReport.pdf. Accessed 5 May 2021

  • Ellis, T., Jenkins, C., & Smith, P. (2015). Evaluation of the introduction of personal issue body worn video cameras (Operation Hyperion) on the Isle of Wight: Final report to Hampshire Constabulary. University of Portsmouth.

  • Engel, R. S., & Worden, R. E. (2003). Police officers’ attitudes, behavior, and supervisory influences: An analysis of problem solving. Criminology, 41(1), 131–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A. G., & Buchner, A. (2007). Gpass*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flippin, M., Reisig, M. D., & Trinkner, R. (2019). The effect of procedural injustice during emergency 911 calls: A factorial vignette-based study. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 15, 651–660.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, J. (1991). Regression diagnostics. Sage.

  • Gaub, J., Choate, D., Todak, N., Katz, C., & White, M. D. (2016). Officer perceptions of body-worn cameras before and after deployment. Police Quarterly, 19(3), 275–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodall, M. (2007). Guidance for the police use of body-worn video devices. Home Office. Police and Crime Standards Directorate.

  • Goodison, S., Wilson, T., & Wellford, C. (2017). Citizen perceptions of body worn cameras: A randomized controlled trial. Police Executive Research Forum.

  • Grossmith, L., Owens, C., Finn, W., Mann, D., Davies, T., & Baika, L. (2015). Police, camera, evidence: London’s cluster randomized controlled trial of body worn video. College of Policing and the Mayor’s Office for Policing and Crime (MOPAC).

  • Hamm, J. A., Trinkner, R., & Carr, J. D. (2017). Fair process, trust, and cooperation: Moving toward an integrated framework of police legitimacy. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 44(9), 1183–1212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamm, J. A., D’Annunzio, A. M., Bornstein, B. H., Hoetger, L., & Herian, M. N. (2019). Do body-worn cameras reduce eyewitness cooperation with the police? An experimental inquiry. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 15, 685–701.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamm, J. A., & Wolfe, S. E. (2021). Using public priorities to disentangle the dimensions of procedural justice and trustworthiness in police–citizen interactions. The British Journal of Criminology, 61(2), 558–579.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hedberg, E. C., Katz, C. M., & Choate, D. E. (2017). Body-worn cameras and citizen interactions with police officers: Estimating plausible effects given varying compliance levels. Justice Quarterly, 34(4), 627–651.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hyland, S. (2018). Body-worn cameras in law enforcement agencies, 2016. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=6426. Accessed 5 May 2021

  • Jackson, J., Brunton-Smith, I., Bradford, B., Oliveira, T. R., Pósch, K., & Sturgis, P. (2021). Police legitimacy and the norm to cooperate: Using a mixed effects location-scale model to estimate the strength of social norms at a small spatial scale. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 37, 547–572.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jennings, W. G., Fridell, L. A., & Lynch, M. D. (2014). Cops and cameras: Officer perceptions of the use of body-worn cameras in law enforcement. Journal of Criminal Justice, 42(6), 549–556.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, D., Maguire, E. R., & Kuhns, J. B. (2014). Public perceptions of the legitimacy of the law and legal authorities: Evidence from the Caribbean. Law and Society Review, 48(4), 947–978.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, D., Wilson, D. B., Maguire, E. R., & Lowrey-Kinberg, B. V. (2017). Race and perceptions of police: Experimental results on the impact of procedural (in)justice. Justice Quarterly, 34, 1184–1212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klepper, S., & Nagin, D. (1989). The deterrent effect of perceived certainty and severity of punishment revisited. Criminology, 27(4), 721–746.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lowrey, B. V., Maguire, E. R., & Bennett, R. R. (2016). Testing the effects of procedural justice and overaccommodation in traffic stops: A randomized experiment. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 43(10), 1430–1449.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lum, C., Stoltz, M., Koper, C. S., & Scherer, J. A. (2019). Research on body-worn cameras: What we know, what we need to know. Criminology and Public Policy, 18, 93–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lum, C., Koper, C. S., Wilson, D. B., Stoltz, M., Goodier, M., Eggins, E., Higginson, A., & Mazerolle, L. (2020). Body-worn cameras’ effects on police officers and citizen behavior: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 16(3), e1112. https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1112

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maguire, E. R., Lowrey, B. V., & Johnson, D. (2017). Evaluating the relative impact of positive and negative encounters with police: A randomized experiment. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 13(3), 367–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazerolle, L., Bennett, S., Davis, J., Sargeant, E., & Manning, M. (2012). Legitimacy in policing: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 9(1), 147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazerolle, L., Antrobus, E., Bennett, S., & Tyler, T. R. (2013). Shaping citizen perceptions of police legitimacy: A randomized field trial of procedural justice. Criminology, 51(1), 33–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McClure, D., La Vigne, N., Lynch, M., & Golian, L. (2017). How body cameras affect community members’ perceptions of police: Results from a randomized controlled trial of one agency’s pilot. California State University Urban Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCluskey, J. D., Uchida, C. D., Solomon, S. E., Wooditch, A., Connor, C., & Revier, L. (2019). Assessing the effects of body-worn cameras on procedural justice in the Los Angeles police department. Criminology, 57(2), 208–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morin, R., Parker, K., Stepler, R., & Mercer, A. (2017). Behind the badge: Amid protests and calls for reform. How police view their jobs, key issues, and recent fatal encounters between blacks and police. Pew Research Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munger, K., & Harris, S. J. (1989). Effects of an observer on hand washing in a public restroom. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 69(3), 733–734.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, K., Hinds, L., & Fleming, J. (2008). Encouraging public cooperation and support for police. Policing & Society, 18(2), 136–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, K., Madon, N. S., & Sargeant, E. (2017). Promoting Muslims’ cooperation with police in counter-terrorism: The interaction between procedural justice, police legitimacy and law legitimacy. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 40(3), 544–559.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, L., Toliver, J., & Police Executive Research Forum. (2014). Implementing a body-worn camera program: Recommendations and lessons learned. Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagin, D. S. (2013). Deterrence in the twenty-first century. In M. Tonry (Ed.), Crime and justice (Vol. 42, pp. 199–263). University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagin, D. S., & Telep, C. W. (2017). Procedural justice and legal compliance. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 13(1), 5–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nivette, A. E., & Akoensi, T. D. (2019). Determinants of satisfaction with police in a developing country: A randomised vignette study. Policing and Society, 29(4), 471–487.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, Q., & White, M. D. (2021). Is there a civilizing effect on citizens? Testing the pre-conditions for body worn camera-induced behavior change. Police Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611121996716

  • Pickett, J. T., Nix, J., & Roche, S. P. (2018). Testing a social schematic model of police procedural justice. Social Psychology Quarterly, 81(2), 97–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing. (2015). Final Report of the President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing. Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rabe-Hesketh, S., & Skrondal, A. (2012). Multilevel and longitudinal modeling using Stata (3rd ed.). Volume I: Continuous responses. Stata Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models. Applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reisig, M. D., Mays, R. D., & Telep, C. W. (2018). The effects of procedural injustice during police–citizen encounters: A factorial vignette study. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 14, 49–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum, D., Shuck, A., Costello, S., Hawkins, D., & Ring, M. (2005). Attitudes towards the police: The effects of direct and vicarious experience. Police Quarterly, 8(3), 343–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sahin, N. M. (2014). Legitimacy, procedural justice and police-citizen encounters: A randomized controlled trial of the impact of procedural justice on citizen perceptions of the police during traffic stops in Turkey (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Rutgers University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sahin, N., Braga, A. A., Apel, R., & Brunson, R. K. (2017). The impact of procedurally-just policing on citizen perceptions of police during traffic stops: The Adana randomized controlled trial. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 33(4), 701–726.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saulnier, A., Lahay, R., McCarty, W. P., & Sanders, C. (2020). The RIDE study: Effects of body-worn cameras on public perceptions of police interactions. Criminology and Public Policy, 19(3), 833–854.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, S. J. (2019). How do the components of procedural justice and driver race influence encounter-specific perceptions of police legitimacy during traffic stops? Criminal Justice and Behavior, 46(8), 1200–1216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sousa, W. H., Miethe, T. D., & Sakiyama, M. (2015). Body worn cameras on police: Results from a national survey of public attitudes [Research brief]. Center for Crime and Justice Policy, University of Nevada. Retrieved from http://www.unlv.edu/sites/default/files/page_files/27/BodyWornCameras.pdf. Accessed 5 May 2021

  • Sousa, W. H., Miethe, T. D., & Sakiyama, M. (2018). Inconsistencies in public opinion of body-worn cameras on police: Transparency, trust, and improved police–citizen relationships. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 12(1), 100–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sunshine, J., & Tyler, T. R. (2003). The role of procedural justice and legitimacy in shaping public support for policing. Law and Society Review, 37(3), 513–548.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tankebe, J. (2009). Public cooperation with the police in Ghana: Does procedural fairness matter? Criminology, 47(4), 1265–1293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tankebe, J. (2013). Viewing things differently: The dimensions of public perceptions of police legitimacy. Criminology, 51(1), 103–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, E., Lee, M., Willis, M., & Gannoni, A. (2017). Police detainee perspectives on police body-worn cameras. Trends & Issues in Crime & Criminal Justice, 537, 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Todak, N., Gaub, J. E., & White, M. D. (2018). The importance of external stakeholders for police body-worn camera diffusion. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 41(4), 448–464.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tyler, T. R. (2003). Procedural justice, legitimacy, and the effective rule of law. In M. Tonry (Ed.), Crime and justice: A review of research (Vol. 30, pp. 283–357). University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyler, T. R. (1990). Why people obey the law. Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyler, T. R. (2006). Why people obey the law. Princeton University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Tyler, T. R., & Huo, Y. J. (2002). Trust in the law: Encouraging public cooperation with the police and courts. Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyler, T. R., & Fagan, J. (2008). Legitimacy and cooperation: Why do people help the police fight crime in their communities? Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law, 6, 231–275.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyler, T. R., & Jackson, J. (2014). Popular legitimacy and the exercise of legal authority: Motivating compliance, cooperation, and engagement. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 20(1), 78–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weitzer, R., & Brunson, R. K. (2009). Strategic responses to the police among inner-city youth. The Sociological Quarterly, 50(2), 235–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, M. D., Flippin, M., & Malm, A. (2019). Key trends in body-worn camera policy and practice: A four-year policy analysis of US Department of Justice-Funded Law Enforcement Agencies. CNA Analysis & Solutions.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, M. D. (2014). Police officer body-worn cameras: Assessing the evidence. Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, M. D., Todak, N., & Gaub, J. E. (2017). Assessing citizen perceptions of body-worn cameras after encounters with police. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 40(4), 689–703.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, M. D., Todak, N., & Gaub, J. E. (2018). Examining body-worn camera integration and acceptance among police officers, citizens, and external stakeholders. Criminology and Public Policy, 17(3), 649–677.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, J. E., & Headley, A. M. (2021). Can technology work for policing? Citizen perceptions of police-body worn cameras. The American Review of Public Administration, 51(1), 17–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Criminal Justice Department, REDCAY Hall 166, State University of New York at Plattsburgh, 101 Broad St, Plattsburgh, NY, 12901, USA

    Mustafa Demir

Authors
  1. Mustafa Demir
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mustafa Demir.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendices

Appendix 1. Video script

The following is a transcript of an 82-s BWC recording made during a traffic stop. An officer wearing a BWC pulls over the driver, a college student, for making an illegal U-turn. A passenger also is inside the car.

Police Officer: Hello!

Driver: Good evening officer.

Police Officer: Good Evening, the reason why I’m stopping you is because you made an illegal U-turn back there.

Driver: Yea, I’m sorry I didn’t realize there was a sign there.

Police Officer: That’s okay, you have a driver’s license on you?

Driver: Yea, of course. Yo Hansen, did you take my driver’s license?

Police Officer: What was that ID in there, what was that ID that you just pulled out?

Driver: That’s my student ID.

Police Officer: I thought I saw another ID in there, there wasn’t another ID behind there right?

Driver: No. I have my— I really don’t know where my driver’s license is.

Passenger: Hey it’s in your pocket you had to show it to get in.

Driver: Oh my God yeah.

Police Officer: Did you have another ID in your wallet that I just saw?

Driver: Yea, I did.

Police Officer: Can I see it?

Driver: Of course!

Police Officer: Is it somebody else’s or is it fake?

Driver: Nah, it’s a fake ID.

Police Officer: Fake, fake?

Driver: Yea.

Police Officer: Alright. What about your real one?

Driver: This is my real one.

Police Officer: That’s your real one?

Driver: Yea.

Police Officer: So, you’re a NY person, right?

Driver: Yup.

Police Officer: That’s a pretty cool ID actually.

Driver: Yea, it is cool.

Police Officer: Is this your car?

Driver: No, it’s not.

Police Officer: It’s not? Okay. I’m not gonna worry about the registration-insurance card. How much did you have drink tonight?

Driver: I had nothing to drink.

Police Officer: You had nothing at all?

Driver: Swear to God.

Police Officer: Swear to God? Okay, well, I’m smelling alcohol, are you the designated driver?

Driver: Yes.

Police Officer: Do you mind stepping out just so I know it’s not coming from you?

Driver: Oh, of course.

Police Officer: Yea. Make sure it’s in park, I don’t want it to roll away.

Appendix 2.

Table 6 Collinearity and correlation matrices
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Demir, M. Effect of awareness and notification of body-worn cameras on procedural justice, police legitimacy, cooperation, and compliance: Findings from a randomized controlled trial. J Exp Criminol 19, 311–341 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-021-09487-6

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-021-09487-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation