Counseling as a profession advocates itself as enhancing the quality of life in society as it is based on a professional relationship between a client (individual, group or family) and counselor to help the client to overcome diverse challenges and mental health issues and achieve personal goals (American Counseling Association, 2020).

As declared by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP, 2016), counselor education programs aim to prepare counselor trainees for the profession by equipping them with the knowledge, skills, and experiences to become competent counselors. In this regard, it is increasingly important to address how to foster students’ counseling self-efficacy (CSE) throughout counselor education.

A quality counselor education requires a comprehensive curriculum that provides rich learning opportunities in both theory and practice of counseling to promote the professional self-efficacy of students in training. Specifically, fundamental courses like “counseling skills and techniques” are critical as they provide a basis for developing basic counseling skills and techniques (Bernstein & Bass, 2005; Cicco, 2011). On a hierarchical pyramid, the basic counseling skills and techniques (e.g., active listening, paraphrasing, reframing) are located at the bottom and the more advanced or complicated ones (e.g., developing a therapeutic relationship and managing the helping process) are at the top (Eriksen & McAuliffe, 2011 Ivey et al., 2010). Ridley et al. (2011) pointed out a weakness in this perspective, stating that entry-level counselor training focusing on developing basic counseling skills should be enhanced by a model of counseling competence that incorporates the counseling competency of therapeutic techniques. Teaching counseling skills and techniques to students, especially in the earlier stages of counselor education, is essential for their professional development and readiness to manage difficulties in counseling practice (Larson, 1998).

Counselor education literature has investigated the use of numerous teaching methods or approaches on skills training. Several examples include the Socratic method and traditional lecture (Brogan et al., 2013), use of counseling laboratory practicum (Hill et al., 2008; Levitt, 2001), service learning (Barbee et al., 2003) and internship experiences (Tang et al., 2004), role-playing of counseling sessions (Larson et al., 1999; Urbani et al., 2002), use of video- modeling (VM; Baum & Gray, 1992), and recording and watching students’ counseling sessions (VanDerWege, 2011). In recent years, different teaching approaches like flipped (pre-recorded video lectures) and online teaching in counselor education have gained attention and researchers have become interested in understading the impact of these course formats on student engagement, skill acquisition, and CSE (e.g., Isom et al., 2021; Merlin-Knoblich et al., 2020; Sheperis et al., 2020). Among all the methods, modeling interventions were the most effective in fostering students’ knowledge in counseling skills and managing the counseling process (Baum & Gray, 1992; Charlop-Christy et al., 2000; Larson et al., 1999) referring to the CSE. Thus, VM has become the most frequently used and favorable teaching method in counselor education.

Video-modeling as a teaching method in counselor education

According to Social Cognitive Theory (SCT; Bandura, 1977), self-efficacy is a function of the personal agency approach that assumes people have capabilities to manage their life. It is affected by the interactions among personal factors of biology, affection, cognitive experience, and behavioral and environmental events (Bandura, 1982). Self-efficacy influences individuals’ motivation to perform in a particular way to acquire desired results which in turn affects their performance (Levitt, 2001).

Four sources decrease or increase individuals’ self-efficacy: mastery, modelling, affective arousal, and social persuasion (Bandura, 1977). These sources are considered to be influential in shaping counselors’ perceptions of CSE (e.g., Munson et al., 1986). Among these sources, mastery is related to the enactment of successful performance of a particular behavior; social persuasion refers to listening to others about how to perform a particular behavior or task; and affective arousal involves positive (e.g., excitement) or negative (e.g., anxiety) feelings which promote or inhibit self-efficacy. Lastly, modeling refers to observing a model who successfully performs or demonstrates a particular behavior which can be associated with the objectives of counselor training. There are two potential ways to use modeling in counselor education. First, the instructor could serve as a model by first performing the desired skills and techniques (i.e., in vivo modeling). The alternative is to implement a pre-recorded videotape to be used as the model for related skills and techniques (i.e., video-modeling, VM).

Drawing from Bandura’s SCT (1977, 1982), Larson (1998) proposed the Social Cognitive Model of Counselor Training (SCMT) and argued that training environment, personal agency factors, and the interaction between these two may influence the learning process and performance of counselors-in-training. The personal agency factors include outcome expectancies, affective arousal, self-evaluation (e.g., Barbee et al., 2003; Daniels, 1997; Larson et al., 1992; Ummet, 2017), and CSE. CSE refers to counselors’ beliefs and judgments about their capabilities or expectations regarding being an effective counselor (Larson et al., 1992). CSE was found positively related to counselors’ amount of training, experience, skills, competencies (e.g., Beutler et al., 2013; Larson et al., 1992; Melchert et al., 1996; Yam & İlhan, 2016; Yayla & İkiz, 2017), supervision process, and work environment (e.g., Barnes, 2004; Kozina et al., 2010). Perceived high CSE helps counselors manage the counseling process effectively, accomplish challenging counselor responsibilities, and accept supervisory feedback for self-improvement (Larson, 1998). Overall, CSE contributes to counselors’ general performance and leads to better counseling outcomes (e.g., Larson & Daniels, 1998; Larson et al., 1992; Lent et al., 2006; Urbani et al., 2002; Zawawi & Al-Ali li, 2014).

Providing students with an opportunity to observe specific skills and techniques in practice through video integration into counseling courses encompasses a broad range of CACREP standards (Crowe et al., 2018). Although some contradictory findings indicate that students have had certain critics about the quality of the scenarios and perfection of the experts in the given videos (e.g., Chui et al., 2014; Spangler et al., 2014), it has been documented that VM is effective for a broad range of areas including alliance (Corradi et al., 1980), ethics training (Siviş-Çetinkaya, 2017; Zur, 2013), and multicultural counseling competencies (Moodley et al., 2000; Pearce, 1997). In a current study, it was found that graduate students who enrolled in two different hybrid formats (including videotaped demonstrations about introductory counseling skills) acquired basic mastery level counseling skills and met the program’s expectations (Isom et al., 2021). The results of existing studies demonstrated that the use of VM technique in counselor education improved the development of counseling skills of prospective counselors (Baum & Gray, 1992; Frankel, 1971; Hill & Lent, 2006; Hill et al., 2008; Larson et al., 1999; Urbani et al., 2002) and increased learning processes (e.g., Burnard, 1991; Knight, 2013) and students’ understanding and identification of counseling profession (Keats, 2008). Moreover, it has also been documented that the use of the VM method has had a positive impact on the perceived CSE of counseling students (e.g., Larson et al., 1999; Munson et al., 1986). Despite the accumulated empirical evidence in support of the use of the VM method for teaching counseling skills, the literature is lacking in an exploration of how specifically VM impacts students’ learning of counseling techniques.

Counselor Education in Turkey

In Turkey, the history of Psychological Counseling and Guidance (PCG) education dates back to the 1950s. In contrast to the counselor education programs in the United States, programs in Turkey provide undergraduate-level training for students who would like to pursue a career in counseling. According to the 2019–2020 Higher Education Statistics, there are 203 universities in Turkey (129 state and 74 private) (Council of Higher Education [CoHE], 2019). Among them, 83 (67 state and 16 private) universities offer an undergraduate degree in counseling. The medium of instruction in seven programs is English (CoHE, 2019). Moreover, there are 33 master’s degree and 13 doctoral degree programs in counseling. However, as the literature conveys, there are several shortcomings in counselor education such as the insufficient number of practicum courses in the curriculum and a heavy use of traditional teaching methods in the theory and/or practicum courses without integration of other methods like modelling or practicing (e.g., Korkut, 2007; Korkut Owen et al., 2013; Tuzgöl Dost & Keklik, 2012; Yerin Güneri et al., 2007). However, in some undergraduate counseling programs, a few exceptions in fact make use of video demonstrations or modeling in counseling skills and techniques courses specifically (e.g., Siviş-Çetinkaya, 2017; Yerin Güneri et al., 2018).

The use of VM is a relatively new topic in counselor training in Turkey. In a recent study (Yerin Güneri et al., 2018), VM scenarios were developed to demonstrate particular counseling techniques (e.g., goal setting, relaxation technique, and genogram). The effect of VM on self-efficacy regarding the use of these techniques was also tested with a group of undergraduate counseling students. The study included 11 volunteer third-year students (six female, five male). Participants watched a video-modeling segments of the 10 counseling techniques consecutively, and a group discussion was conducted after each video segment. The results indicated a significant increase in students’ perceived self-efficacy in using modeled counseling techniques after the training session (Yerin Güneri et al., 2018). To increase the effectiveness of VM, researchers have made recommendations regarding the integration of VM into the undergraduate counseling skills and techniques course. It was also suggested in the literature that a single skill or technique should be presented at any given time using VM (Yerin Güneri et al., 2018). Group discussions should be conducted after watching each video demonstration, and students should be encouraged to role-play the given skill or technique (Eriksen & McAuliffe, 2011). Moreover, Keats (2008) addressed the necessity of exploring trainees’ perceptions of demonstrations to understand better the efficacy of using VM in the learning process. The current study aimed to (1) investigate how the integration of VM as a teaching method into the counseling skills and techniques course affects counseling students’ perceived counseling techniques efficacy and CSE (a quantitative phase) and (2) gain a deeper understanding regarding students’ thoughts about VM integration into this course, the role of VM integration on their knowledge of counseling techniques, and their counseling self-efficacy (a qualitative phase).

Method

Research Design

This study used a mixed-methods sequential explanatory design consisting of two distinct and consecutive phases: quantitative and qualitative (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). This design is typically used in educational research to test “the value of a new teaching method or interest aroused by some curriculum innovation” (Cohen et al., 2011, p. 322). In the first phase of the study, a quasi-experimental design (the one group pre-test post-test design) (Cohen et al., 2011) was used. The study aimed to investigate how the integration of VM as a teaching method into the counseling skills and techniques course affects counseling students’ perceived counseling self-efficacy. The data were collected with three instruments: the Counseling Techniques Use Efficacy Form, the Counseling Self-Efficacy Scale, and a Demographic Form. In the second phase, qualitative data were obtained through a semi-structured focus group interview to deepen and elaborate on the quantitative results obtained in the first phase.

Participants

Quantitative Study

Participants of this study were undergraduate third-year counseling students in a private university who were enrolled in a counseling skills and techniques course. The course included 58 students. The pre-test measures were applied to students who volunteered to participate in the study. They met the inclusion criteria of not having taken any course or education about counseling skills/techniques/theories (e.g., cognitive and behavioral therapy training) and not receiving any individual and/or group counseling before or during the course. The 41 students (31 female and 10 male) who met these criteria were included in the study.

Qualitative Study

To collect qualitative data, a focus group interview was conducted with the volunteer students who participated in every session where video models were used. This focus group consisted of seven (four female and three male) students.

Instruments

Demographic Information Form

This form included questions regarding school ID, gender, and previous coursework or training experience related to counseling skills/techniques/theories, individual or group counseling experience.

Counseling Techniques Use Efficacy Form (CTUEF)

CTUEF was developed by Yerin Güneri et al. (2018) to assess perceived efficacy in using 10 counseling techniques (behavior contracting, role playing, lifeline, scaling question and miracle question, guided imagery, semi-projective techniques, relaxation, empty chair, and genogram). In CTUEF, participants were asked to indicate their perceived efficacy level in using each counseling technique (e.g., role playing, using genogram, and miracle question) on a 5-point Likert type scale (1 = not confident at all, 5 = completely confident).

Counseling Activity Self-Efficacy Scales (CASES)

CASES was developed to assess the counseling self-efficacy of counselor trainees (Lent et al., 2003) and adapted to Turkish by Pamukçu and Demir (2013). CASES includes 41 items. Participants were asked to indicate perceived self-efficacy for each counseling activity on a 10-point Likert type scale (0 = I do not trust myself at all, 9 = I completely trust myself). Three subscales of CASES are Helping Skill Self-Efficacy (15 items), Session Management Self-Efficacy (10 items), and Counseling Challenges Self-Efficacy (16 items). The scores range between 0 to 369 points and higher scores in each subscale indicate higher perceived counseling self-efficacy. Similar to the original study, in the Turkish version, the three-factor model was supported, and the construct validity was confirmed. The internal consistency coefficients of the Turkish CASES sub-scales (α = .92 for Helping Skill Self-Efficacy, α = .95 for Session Management Self-Efficacy, and α = .95 Counseling Challenges Self-Efficacy) showed that CASES is a reliable measure for assessing counseling self-efficacy levels of counselor trainees. In the current study, Helping Skill Self-Efficacy (α = .94) and Session Management Self-Efficacy (α = .98) subscales were used. Sample items for Helping Skill Self-Efficacy were “Immediacy (disclose immediate feelings you have about the client, the therapeutic relationship, or yourself in relation to the client)”; “Open questions (ask questions that help clients to clarify or explore their thoughts or feelings)”. Sample items for Session Management Self-Efficacy were “Help your client to understand his or her thoughts, feelings, and actions”; “Keep sessions on track and focused”. In this study, the item responses to Helping Skill and Session Management Self-Efficacy scales were summed and divided by 25 similar to the approach of Lent et al. (2006). Therefore, the total scores ranging between 0 and 9 were calculated. This new score was labeled as General Counseling Self-Efficacy by the researchers. Because novice counselors do not have the opportunity to learn and practice the skills to manage challenging situations within this course’s scope, as was suggested in the previous studies (e.g., Lent et al., 2006), the Counseling Challenges subscale was not used in the present study.

Semi-Structured Interview Form

The semi-structured interview form included open-ended questions for the focus group. The questions were as follows (1) What is your opinion about the use of video modeling as a teaching method in this course? (2) How did the use of video modeling affect your learning of counseling techniques? (3) How did the use of video modeling affect your application of counseling techniques? (4) What is your opinion about the discussion sessions conducted after each counseling technique video? (5) What is your opinion about the compatibility between techniques taught in the course and how these techniques were modeled in the videos? (6) What do you think about the use of videos as a teaching method in counselor education? (7) What are your suggestions for improving the effectiveness of video modeling use in counselor training?

Procedures

Procedure for Quantitative Study

In Turkey, counselor education is provided by the Psychological Counseling and Guidance departments on three levels: undergraduate (a 4-year degree program), Master’s, and Ph.D. The research setting of the current study was the undergraduate program of Psychological Counseling and Guidance Department at a private university in the southeastern Anatolia region of Turkey. In this program, students are required to take the “Principles and Techniques of Psychological Counseling” course in the Fall semester of their third year biweekly for four hours (two hours theory and two hours practice). The course aims were to teach processes, skills and techniques in counseling. The principal investigator -a faculty member of the university- was the instructor of the Principles and Techniques of Counseling course. The study was conducted during the 2018–2019 fall semester and the course was redesigned on the grounds of using video modeling techniques in teaching principles and techniques of counseling. The researchers planned the details of the course including course content, structure, grading, and the protocol of the use of video modeling to make the principal author follow a structured process, controlling any confounding variable.

The researchers utilized 10 previously developed short videos, each of which demonstrated a counseling technique (e.g., an empty chair, miracle question) or counseling process (e.g., initial interview, termination) (Yerin Güneri et al., 2018). These techniques were selected by counselor educators and researchers in the aforementioned pilot study as being the most essential counseling techniques in counseling education in Turkey (Yerin Güneri et al., 2018). Thus, the scope of this study was limited to the use of these ten counseling techniques. See Table 1 for the distribution of course content and teaching methods (lecture and video modeling) across the semester (14 weeks). The instructor of the course followed four steps while teaching each topic: (1) giving a lecture about the content of the week, (2) distributing the worksheets including the discussion questions about the videos (How were the body languages of the client and counselor? How did the counselor use the technique? What would you do differently if you were using this technique?) and asking students to consider these questions while watching the videos, (3) showing the video related to the content, (4) giving students 5 min to write down their responses to questions and 10 min of discussion of their answers.

Table 1 Distribution of course content and teaching methods across the semester
Full size table

In the first week of the course, students were informed that VM will be used as a teaching method. Students were also given information about the study that will be conducted in the course to assess the use of VM as a teaching method for counseling techniques. They were given explanations about the procedures to be followed in the study and informed that pre- and post-test would be conducted in the 1st and 14th weeks of the semester. Students were also informed that their participation in the study (filling out pre-post test measures, or attending focus group discussions) was voluntary and their choice would not affect their grades. All 58 registered students agreed to participate and provided their consent to anonymous use of their responses for research purposes. Pre- and post-tests were conducted during class hours by the instructor. In order to match pre- and post-tests of the students, they were required to indicate their student ID on the demographic information form.

Procedure for Qualitative Study

Participants who met the inclusion criteria (no experience with this course or any prior education about counseling skills/techniques/theories, no prior individual and/or group counseling, voluntary participation in the focus group, and participation in each class where VMs were used) were recruited for the focus group interview. Students were informed about the aim of the focus group in the last class of the semester. The instructor conducted a focus group with students the week after the last class. The interview was conducted in the group counseling room of the department and took 30 min. The instructor used a semi-structured interview format. The focus group session was audio recorded with the permission of students.

Data Analyses

Quantitative Study

The paired samples t-test was applied to examine whether a statistically significant difference existed between pre-test and post-tests scores on counseling techniques efficacy and counseling self-efficacy (helping and session management self-efficacy) in the VM integrated counseling skills and techniques course. Data were analyzed by using SPSS 24.

Qualitative Study

The researchers audiotaped and transcribed the focus group interview verbatim. The content analyses were conducted using NVivo 12 qualitative software. The content analysis steps included (1) coding the data, (2) finding themes, (3) organizing codes and themes, and (4) identifying and interpreting the findings (Creswell & Creswell, 2017; Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2016). In the first step, the principal investigator coded the data and created a code list. Afterwards, the second author used the same code list to review the dataset. In the third step, two researchers discussed and finalized the code list. This step provided content integrity and assured dependability of the study. The fourth step included the identification of themes to categorize the codes. Codes and themes were reviewed and organized collaboratively by both researchers. Before the interpretation of the findings, peer debriefing was used (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). An expert opinion was sought from a researcher in the field of counseling with expertise both on the subject and qualitative research design. This step provided evidence for the consistency and relevance of the codes and themes and satisfied the credibility of the study. Additionally, an expert evaluation of the raw data were conducted to ensure the objectivity of findings, which increased the dependability of the study. Finally, the findings of the study were presented with direct quotations from interviews to provide transferability.

Results

Quantitative Study

Prior to conducting paired sample t-tests, the assumption of normally distributed difference scores and outliers were checked. The results of normality tests showed that the absolute skewness and kurtosis values were lower than 3 which indicated that the univariate normality assumption was met (Kline, 2011). Moreover, visual inspection of Q-Q plots provided evidence for normality. To detect outliers, z scores were checked and no cases were detected out of the range of the critical value of ±3.29 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). To interpret the results of paired sample t-tests (three separate tests were conducted for each dependent variable), Bonferronni correction was applied, and the alpha level was adjusted to .02 (0.05/3) to reduce Type I error due to multiple comparisons. Moreover, to evaluate effect sizes, Cohen’s d was estimated (Cohen, 1988): 0.2 as small, 0.5 as medium, and 0.8 as large effects.

The results of paired sample t-test showed that post-test scores for counseling techniques use efficacy (M = 36.44, SD = 4.18) were higher than pre-test scores (M = 27.88, SD = 6.52) and this improvement was statistically significant t(40) = 8.30, p = .00, Cohen’s d = 1.30. For general counseling self-efficacy, post-test scores (M = 6.16, SD = 1.12) were significantly higher than pre-test scores (M = 5.16, SD = 1.34); t(40) = 4.35, p = .000, Cohen’s d = 0.68.

Qualitative Study

The results of the study were categorized under four main themes: gaining skills to apply techniques, advantages of using VM in counselor education, advantages of video discussions in class, and recommendations for the further use of VM (Table 2). Quotes were provided for the most frequent and striking codes.

Table 2 The List of Themes and Codes
Full size table

Gaining Skills to Apply Techniques

This theme addresses students’ acquired knowledge and skills to apply counseling techniques. The codes under this theme included an increase in self-efficacy (C1; f = 12), observational learning (C2; f = 5), learning not to be afraid of making mistakes (C3; f = 4), and learning do’s and don’ts in applying counseling techniques (C4; f = 2). The codes were exemplified with the participant quotes below.

“We have learned to imagine ourselves as if we are conducting counseling sessions. It feels like I can sit in the counselor chair more confidently” (C1). “I would not have the courage to try but, when I observed someone practicing the technique, I thought myself I could do it” (C1).

“Our skills improved indirectly since we do not practice now. Observing someone in practice raised awareness” (C2). “We realized that we can make mistakes and we should not feel nervous when we make them” (C3)

“...Videos show us both the correct and uncorrect things. We gain insight about how to do it. Videos taught me what I should or should not do.” (C4).

Advantages of Using Video-Modeling in Counseling Education

The first and second codes under this theme addressed how the use of VM provided concrete examples for theoretical knowledge (C5, f = 10) and an opportunity to visualize the technique (C6, f = 5). The other codes under this theme are strengthening the learning of course topics (C10, f = 3), giving a chance for critical evaluation of videos (C8, f = 3), and decreasing the disadvantages of learning techniques in a large class (C9, f = 2). The below quotations exemplifies the participant responses in this theme.

“We learn theoretical knowledge but it does not mean anything in practice. Watching these videos helps us to visualize the theoretical knowledge. Watching a client and counselor makes it possible to visualize in our mind” (C5 and C6). “Everybody learns differently. Videos materialize in my mind while I am studying. It helped me a lot” (C6).

“We have learned the topics. Watching videos and making discussions afterward make our knowledge more permenant” (C7). “Prior explanation before the video provides information about what should be exemplified in the video and how to criticize. Then, we can criticize the video considering its positive and negative sides” (C8). “The use of videos is sensible in large clasess.... Even if we did not listen to the instructor, videos would stick in our minds” (C9).

Advantages of Video Discussion in Class

This theme included two codes: observing different perspectives of classmates (C10, f = 8) and deepening perspectives toward the counseling process (C11, f = 2). The quotations of participants were presented below.

“I have learned a lot from the ideas of my classmates. There were different perspectives that I never thought of before. This helped us to learn. This is the most effective part for me” (C10). “First, we were giving simple responses to the discussion questions about videos. Then, we gained experience and gave responses like “Counselor sits in confidence, makes the client feel comfortable in the video” (C11). “We have started to change our perspectives about the same issues” (C11).

Recommendations for the Further Use of Video-Modeling

The highest number of codes clustered under this theme addressing participants’ recommendations to improve the effectiveness of the further use of video-modeling in counseling education such as presenting videos within the context of counseling sessions (C12, f = 5) and using real clients and factual scenarios (C13, f = 4). The other codes included more general recommendations for usage of video-modeling: making videos available for use in other courses (C14, f = 6), making videos accessible to students (C15, f = 3), increasing the technical quality of videos (C16, f = 1), and having extra classes for video presentations (C17, f = 1). Some of the quotations of participants were as follows:

“The content integrity in the course book could be provided in videos as well. Most of the techniques and strategies would be explained through the same comprehensive case” (C12).

“As far as I understood, the clients were acting. I wish the clients were real” (C13). “A client is acting as a high-school student but he appears to be nearly 35 years old. Because of this inconsistency, I could not focus on the video” (C13).

“I suggest using video-modeling in other courses such as Human Relationships and Effective Communication, Theories of Counseling, Theories of Personality” (C14). “It would be better to make these videos accessible online. This would be good for students in other departments” (C15).

Discussion

This study aimed to a) examine the impact of VM use on perceived counseling techniques efficacy and perceived CSE of 3rd-year undergraduate counseling students in a counseling skills and techniques course and b) to gain a deeper understanding of the use of VM as a teaching method in this course.

This study replicated and extended a previous pilot study in Turkey (Yerin Güneri et al., 2018) that focused on using VM to promote basic counseling techniques of undergraduate counseling students. In this pilot study, students watched videos consecutively in a one-session seminar and engaged in discussions afterward. Unlike the pilot, the current study integrated VM as a teaching method into the counseling skills and techniques course and investigated the effectiveness of VM on both perceived efficacy in using counseling techniques and general counseling skills self-efficacy among third-year undergraduate counseling students. Consistent with our expectations, the quantitative results show that VM increased students’ perceived efficacy in using 10 counseling techniques. Additionally, there was an increase in students’ perceived general counseling self-efficacy scores between pre- and post-test measures. Numerous studies evidenced the effectiveness of VM on teaching basic and advanced counseling skills and enhancing counselor self-efficacy of counselors in training (e.g., Baum & Gray, 1992; Hill & Lent, 2006; Hill et al., 2008; Larson et al., 1999; Urbani et al., 2002). Thus, the findings of the current study supported the literature indicating the effectiveness of VM use in microcounseling training (e.g., Ivey, 1973; Ivey et al., 1968) and cumulative microtraining (Van der Molen et al., 1995) in which trainees watch videos of the experts demonstrating relevant skills. However, the most valuable contribution of the current study results compared with earlier studies in which videos mostly modelled counseling skills is the further evidence for effectiveness of VM on fostering counselor candidate’s self-efficacy in using specific counseling techniques.

The competence of using counseling techniques with a sense of self-efficacy necessitates both knowledge and skills about basic and advanced counseling skills. Students may have difficulty in understanding the techniques based on only the theoretical information provided in the class as well as deciding how and when to apply them in counseling sessions. Thus, this study has shown that watching an expert demonstrating a given technique helped them to better comprehend the use of the technique. Along with the increase in student’s perceived self-efficacy in using counseling techniques, student’s general counseling self-efficacy in specific to helping and session management skills also increased.

Previous studies have indicated that exposure to any course design of a counseling skills and techniques course would lead to an increase in student’s perceived counseling self-efficacy (e.g., Brogan et al., 2013; Meyer, 2015). Therefore, it is possible that the reported increase in students’ general counseling self-efficacy may not be directly associated with the presence of VM in the course. Although there is no control group in the current study to evaluate the unique role of VM integration in comparison to any other method, the qualitative phase of the study provided further to better understand the specific role of VM integration and the factors leading to increased self-efficacy in using counseling techniques and general counseling self-efficacy levels.

The students in this study also addressed the advantages of using VM in counseling education during the focus group interview. They mentioned that watching videos provided an opportunity to solidify their theoretical knowledge and information that they learned in the class, strengthen their learning, and minimize the disadvantage of being in a crowded class with 60 students. Students’ experiences related to the VM integration were overall quite positive. Considering that counseling skills and techniques courses are critically important for the professional development of counselor candidates (Ivey et al., 2010), findings of this research indicated that integrating VM into a counseling skills and technique course not only improve the pedogogical processes of a course but also provide advantages in modeling practices prior to taking practicum courses in later semesters.

Furthermore, the students in this study also emphasized the advantages of the class discussions held after each video demonstration. They pointed out the importance of having a chance to observe classmates’ different perspectives about the videos for deepening their own understanding. This implies that video demonstrations followed by discussions help to promote self-efficacy of students, a conclusion supported by previous research as well (e.g., Chui et al., 2014; Crowe et al., 2018; Keats, 2008). Consequently, qualitative findings supported the quantitative findings regarding the role of VM on increasing students’ perceived counseling self-efficacy. The integration of VM in the counseling skills and techniques course may also help clients by reducing the risk of unintended harm to clients due to counselors’ inadequate knowledge of counseling techniques and low levels of self-efficacy.

The last qualitative conclusions shed light on VM as a part of the counseling courses by means of student recommendations for the further integration and usage. Students suggested using real clients and factual video scripts, increasing the technical quality of videos, using different cases for the same techniques, and presenting videos within the context of counseling sessions as if counselor and client working together across counseling sessions. In line with the results of previous studies in which the poor scenarios (e.g., unnatural, outdated, and unclear) and the use of perfect experts in the videos were criticized (e.g., Chui et al., 2014; Spangler et al., 2014), the recommendations of the students in this study suggested that there is a need to improve the content and technical aspect of the videos. However, it is worth remembering that these videos were the first materials developed in Turkish by the team of enthusiastic and voluntary counseling faculty in collaboration with a group of graduate students. The faculty members in the team played roles of the client and counselor alternately which could be considered both as a strength and also as a limitation based on students’ suggestions in terms of using real versus mock clients/counselors withing the context of counseling sessions. Considering that videotaped counseling scenarios would influence the effectiveness of VM in increasing CSE of counselor trainees (Larson et al., 1999), the recommendations of students highlighted the alternative ways and ideas to enrich the preparation and application processes of VM in counseling education.

Limitations and Further Directions

This study has several limitations that must be considered. First of all, along with the video demonstrations and discussions on each video, students were taught theoretical knowledge on counseling skills and techniques. Therefore, although VM was integrated into the course curriculum, it could be argued that the increase in perceived self-efficacy of students was also affected by the knowledge that they gained during the course. However, to mitigate the potential impact of this situation on the results, mixed-method research was designed and focus group was conducted with students to find further support for the positive impact of VM integration in promoting student’s perceived counseling self-efficacy in using techniques. Nevertheless, secondly, conducting a quasi-experimental design that lacks a control or comparison group (Cohen et al., 2011) did not allow to compare any other method to VM integration. Taken all together, in further studies, researchers could utilize the power of using a true experimental design and compare the effectiveness of VM integrated course of control or comparison groups in which the effectiveness of different teaching methods (e.g., in vivo modeling, role-play) on self-efficacy could be tested.

Third, in this study, students could not have a chance to do role-plays or practice the techniques with their classmates or mock clients in the class. In future research, students could be given opportunities to do role-plays with their classmates during or after the class about each technique demonstrated in the videos to provide further evidence for the efficiency of VM on the acquisition of knowledge and increase in self-efficacy. Fourth, this study is limited to the video demonstrations of 10 counseling techniques. Given that there are numerous basic and advanced techniques developed from the perspectives of different counseling models and approaches, scholars are encouraged to prepare more video models including both counseling skills and techniques for integration into their courses towards enhanced student professional development. Additionally, VM is more effective for increasing CSE when it is used in the early stages of counseling education; however, its effectiveness can be increased when it is combined with other potential interventions such as visual imagery and role-plays (Larson, 1998). Thus, it is recommended that VM could be supported with other intervention methods in future studies.

Fifth, in the preparation and planning processes of future videos, scholars are also encouraged to consider the shortcomings of the current videos (e.g., technical inadequacies), which were developed by a team of counseling faculty members and doctorate students within the bounds of possibilities and recommendations of the students to improve the impact of other potential videos. Sixth, the current sample consisted of only counselor candidates who had been recruited from one university and one undergraduate class. Thus, the effectiveness of VM integrated course curriculum on perceived self-efficacy could be tested in graduate courses as well. Lastly, in addition to the focus group conducted in this study to elaborate on the quantitative results, future researchers are recommended to give participants different opportunities to express their own experiences about the integration of VM and its impact on counseling self-efficacy via current, innovative, and time-saving qualitative research methods such as Online Photovoice -using photographing scenes including research themes which are selected and interpreted by the participants collaboratively- which is also applicable when face to face interaction is not possible (Doyumğaç et al., 2021; Tanhan & Strack, 2020).

Implications

The findings of this study are important for several reasons and provide valuable information and insight for the future research and practice in the field of counselor education. It is surely beyond doubt that counselor educators and supervisors are strongly encouraged to provide supportive learning environment and integrate different activities and methods in counselor training (Tanhan, 2018). Although VM has been integrated into counselor education in some countries like the U.S for many years, the use of VM in counselor education is a relatively new research area in Turkey and this study has extended the existing literature by investigating the VM-integrated counseling skills and techniques course curriculum. Although the same videos were used with the previous study (e.g., Yerin Güneri et al., 2018) in which the effectiveness of videos on counseling students’ self-efficacy was tested after videos were demonstrated in one session consecutively, the findings of this study were extended by integrating VM into the course. Thus, this study both provided an alternative way of teaching a counseling skills and techniques course with a VM integration into the curriculum and enhanced the previous literature by revealing the positive impacts of VM on perceived counseling self-efficacy.

This study is also unique in its usage of videos specific to demonstrations of counseling techniques, contrasting with previous studies that used mostly VM about counseling skills (e.g., Hill & Lent, 2006, Urbani et al., 2002). Overall, counselor educators in the field of psychology and psychological counseling would do well to include VM into their theoretical and specifically practicum courses to enhance student learning and practice which in turn protects their future clients from potential risks.

The large number of supervisees assigned to each supervisor at universities in Turkey (Tanhan, 2018) also underscores the importance of integrating different teaching methods to improve students’ knowledge, practice skills, and self-efficacy as well as productivity of the overall supervising process. Supervisors can utilize the integration of VM in their individual and group counseling practicum courses both in undergraduate and graduate levels to reinforce existing theoretical knowledge and use them as examples of technique applications. Considering that these videos were the first materials developed in Turkish, researchers and practioners are encouraged to create more videos exemplifying various basic and advanced counseling skills and techniques. In this way, culture-appropriate VM materials would accumulate for integration into different courses and use in various practices.

Additionally, although this study was not conducted during COVID-19 Pandemic, this pandemic clearly showed that online/distance education, video education, using digital tools (e.g., video and audio materials) become very important, necessary, and popular to provide continuance of the education and will definitely increase in future all over the world (Doyumğaç et al., 2021; Mishra et al., 2020). In current studies in which the shift from face-to-face to online education in counseling programs has already been investigated, researchers emphasized the importance of including current, creative, and technological ways of teaching to improve core-counseling skill acquisition of counselor-trainees (Haddock et al., 2020; Isom et al., 2021). In this sense, especially when face-to-face education is interrupted or counseling education is preferred or obliged to be provided as online/hybrid/offline, VM can be used efficiently as a digital supplementary method by counselor educators and supervisors.