Abstract
The Neotropical region has been subjected to massive urbanization, which poses high risks for some global biodiversity hotspots and losses of ecosystem functions and services. In this study, we investigate how distance from large patches of native forests (source areas) and vegetation (green)/and infrastructure (gray) characteristics affect bird species richness and functional diversity in São Paulo megacity, southeastern Brazil. We analyzed the effects of source areas and green/gray characteristics on species richness and functional diversity (richness, evenness, and divergence) indices. We detected 231 bird species, and our data confirmed our predictions: (1) bird species richness in urbanized habitats was found to be (~ 50–85%) lower than in source habitats; (2) species richness and trait composition significantly decreased as the distance from the source area increased, while functional richness was not affected by this metric; and (3) shrub and herbaceous covers and maximum height of trees were positively correlated with species richness and unique functional traits regarding habitat, diet, foraging and nesting strata and dispersal ability of birds in the forest-urban matrix. The number of buildings was negatively correlated with bird species richness and functional richness. Maximum height of buildings caused dramatic declines in functional evenness. Functional divergence was notably lower in sites with high shrub cover. Our study stresses the complexity of vegetation embedded in large Neotropical urban settlements and the need to maintain large protected areas surrounding megacities to mitigate the impacts of urbanization on birds.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alvares CA, Stape JL, Sentelhas PC et al (2013) Köppen’s climate classification map for Brazil. Meteorol Zeitschrift 22:711–728. https://doi.org/10.1127/0941-2948/2013/0507
Amaya-Espinel JD, Hostetler M, Henríquez C, Bonacic C (2019) The influence of building density on Neotropical bird communities found in small urban parks. Landsc Urban Plan 190:103578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.05.009
Andersson E (2006) Urban landscapes and sustainable cities. Ecol Soc 11:34. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-01639-110134
Antunes AZ, de Eston MR (2008) Avifauna do Parque Estadual Alberto Löfgren - São Paulo: Diagnóstico e propostas para a conservação. Rev Do Inst Florest 20:195–211
Aronson MFJ, La Sorte FA, Nilon CH et al (2014) A global analysis of the impacts of urbanization on bird and plant diversity reveals key anthropogenic drivers. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 281. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.3330
Aronson MFJ, Nilon CH, Lepczyk CA et al (2016) Hierarchical filters determine community assembly of urban species pools. Ecology 97:2952–2963. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.1535
Awade M, Metzger JP (2008) Using gap-crossing capacity to evaluate functional connectivity of two Atlantic rainforest birds and their response to fragmentation. Austral Ecol 33:863–871. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.2008.01857.x
Barton K (2019) MuMIn: Multi-model inference. R Package Version 1(43):6
Baselga A (2010) Partitioning the turnover and nestedness components of beta diversity. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 19:134–143. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2009.00490.x
Baselga A, Orme CDL (2012) Betapart: An R package for the study of beta diversity. Methods Ecol Evol 3:808–812. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2041-210X.2012.00224.x
Basilio LG, Moreno DJ, Piratelli AJ (2020) Main causes of bird-window collisions: a review. An Acad Bras Cienc 92:20180745. https://doi.org/10.1590/0001-3765202020180745
Batisteli AF, Tanaka MO, Souza ALT (2018) Bird functional traits respond to forest structure in riparian areas undergoing active restoration. Diversity 10:8–11. https://doi.org/10.3390/d10030090
Bencke GA, Mauricio GN, Develey PF, Goerck JM (2006) Áreas importantes para a conservação das aves no Brasil. Parte I: Estados do domínio da Mata Atlântica. SAVE Brasil, São Paulo
Beninde J, Veith M, Hochkirch A (2015) Biodiversity in cities needs space: a meta-analysis of factors determining intra-urban biodiversity variation. Ecol Lett 18:581–592. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12427
Bibby C, Burgess ND, Hill DA, Mustoe SH (1993) Bird census techniques, second edi. Academic Press, London
Breheny P, Burchett W (2017) Visualization of regression models using visreg. R J 9:56. https://doi.org/10.32614/RJ-2017-046
Brisque T, Campos-Silva LA, Piratelli AJ (2017) Relationship between bird-of-prey decals and bird-window collisions on a Brazilian university campus. Zoologia 34:1–8. https://doi.org/10.3897/zoologia.34.e13729
Brooks ME, Kristensen K, Van Benthem KJ et al (2017) glmmTMB balances speed and flexibility among packages for zero-inflated generalized linear mixed modeling. R J 9:378–400
Burnham KP, Anderson DR (2002) Model selection and multimodel inference : a practical information-theoretic approach, 2nd ed. New York, NY
Callaghan CT, Major RE, Cornwell WK et al (2020) A continental measure of urbanness predicts avian response to local urbanization. Ecography (cop) 43:528–538. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.04863
Callaghan CT, Major RE, Wilshire JH et al (2019) Generalists are the most urban-tolerant of birds: a phylogenetically controlled analysis of ecological and life history traits using a novel continuous measure of bird responses to urbanization. Oikos 128:. https://doi.org/10.1111/oik.06158
Campos-Silva LA, Piratelli AJ (2020) Vegetation structure drives taxonomic diversity and functional traits of birds in urban private native forest fragments. Urban Ecosyst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-020-01045-8
Carbó-Ramírez P, Zuria I (2011) The value of small urban greenspaces for birds in a Mexican city. Landsc Urban Plan 100:213–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.12.008
Casas G, Darski B, Ferreira PMA et al (2016) Habitat Structure Influences the Diversity, Richness and Composition of Bird Assemblages in Successional Atlantic Rain Forests. Trop Conserv Sci 9:503–524. https://doi.org/10.1177/194008291600900126
Chace JF, Walsh JJ (2006) Urban effects on native avifauna: A review. Landsc Urban Plan 74:46–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2004.08.007
Chao A, Gotelli NJ, Hsieh TC et al (2014) Rarefaction and extrapolation with Hill numbers: a framework for sampling and estimation in species diversity studies. Ecol Monogr 84:45–67. https://doi.org/10.1890/13-0133.1
Cincotta RP, Wisnewski J, Engelman R (2000) Human Population in the Biodiversity Hotspots 404:25–27
Colwell RK, Chao A, Gotelli NJ et al (2012) Models and estimators linking individual-based and sample-based rarefaction, extrapolation and comparison of assemblages. J Plant Ecol 5:3–21. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpe/rtr044
Concepción ED, Obrist MK, Moretti M et al (2016) Impacts of urban sprawl on species richness of plants, butterflies, gastropods and birds: not only built-up area matters. Urban Ecosyst 19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-015-0474-4
Cornelius C, Awade M, Cândia-Gallardo C et al (2017) Habitat fragmentation drives inter-population variation in dispersal behavior in a Neotropical rainforest bird. Perspect Ecol Conserv 15:3–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecon.2017.02.002
Croci S, Butet A, Clergeau P (2008) Does urbanization filter birds on the basis of their biological traits? Condor 110:223–240. https://doi.org/10.1525/cond.2008.8409
Crouzeilles R, Curran M, Ferreira MS et al (2016) A global meta-Analysis on the ecological drivers of forest restoration success. Nat Commun 7:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms11666
de Carmago Barbosa KV, Rodewald AD, Ribeiro MC, Jahn AE (2020) Noise level and water distance drive resident and migratory bird species richness within a Neotropical megacity. Landsc Urban Plan 197:103769. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2020.103769
De Coster G, Banks-Leite C, Metzger JP (2015) Atlantic forest bird communities provide different but not fewer functions after habitat loss. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 282:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.2844
de Piacentini VQ, Aleixo A, Agne CE et al (2015) Annotated checklist of the birds of Brazil by the Brazilian Ornithological Records Committee. Rev Bras Ornitol 23:91–298
dos Anjos L, Bochio GM, Medeiros HR et al (2019) Insights on the functional composition of specialist and generalist birds throughout continuous and fragmented forests. Ecol Evol 9:6318–6328. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.5204
del Hoyo J, Elliott A, Sargatal J et al (2019) Handbook of the birds of the world alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona
Develey PF, Martensen AC (2006) As aves da Reserva Florestal do Morro Grande (Cotia, SP). Biota Neotrop 6:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1676-06032006000200008
Devictor V, Julliard R, Couvet D et al (2007) Functional homogenization effect of urbanization on bird communities. Conserv Biol 21:741–751. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00671.x
Domínguez-López ME, Ortega-Álvarez R (2014) The importance of riparian habitats for avian communities in a highly human-modified Neotropical landscape. Rev Mex Biodivers 85:1217–1227. https://doi.org/10.7550/rmb.43849
Ehlers Smith DA, Si X, Ehlers Smith YC, Downs CT (2018) Seasonal variation in avian diversity and tolerance by migratory forest specialists of the patch-isolation gradient across a fragmented forest system. Biodivers Conserv 27:3707–3727. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-018-1622-y
Estevo CA, Nagy-Reis MB, Silva WR (2017) Urban parks can maintain minimal resilience for Neotropical bird communities. Urban For Urban Green 27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.06.013
Faggi A, Caula S (2017) ‘Green’ or ‘Gray’? Infrastructure and bird ecology in urban Latin America. In: MacGregor-Fors I, Escobar-Ibáñez JF (eds) Avian Ecology in Latin American Cityscapes. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 79–97
Fernández-Juricic E, Jokimäki J (2001) A habitat island approach to conserving birds in urban landscapes: case studies from southern and northern Europe. Biodivers Conserv 10:2023–2043
Fischer JD, Schneider SC, Ahlers AA, Miller JR (2015) Categorizing wildlife responses to urbanization and conservation implications of terminology. Conserv Biol 29:1246–1248. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12451
Fontana CS, Burger MI, Magnusson WE (2011a) Bird diversity in a subtropical South-American City: Effects of noise levels, arborisation and human population density. Urban Ecosyst 14:341–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-011-0156-9
Fontana S, Sattler T, Bontadina F, Moretti M (2011b) How to manage the urban green to improve bird diversity and community structure. Landsc Urban Plan 101:278–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.02.033
Gagné SA, Sherman PJ, Singh KK, Meentemeyer RK (2016) The effect of human population size on the breeding bird diversity of urban regions. Biodivers Conserv 25:653–671. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-016-1080-3
Galetti M, Guevara R, Côrtes MC et al (2013) Functional extinction of birds drives rapid evolutionary changes in seed size. Science (80- ) 340:1086–1090. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1233774
Gotelli NJ, Colwell RK (2011) Estimating species richness. In: Magurran AE, McGill BJ (eds) Biological Diversity: Frontiers in Measurement and Assessment. Oxford University Press (OUP), New York, pp 39–54
Gotelli NJ, McCabe DJ (2002) Species co-occurrence: a meta-analysis of JM diamond’s assembly rules model. Ecology 83:2091. https://doi.org/10.2307/3072040
Gower JC (1966) Some distance properties of latent root and vector methods used in multivariate analysis. Biometrika Trust 53:325–338. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/53.3-4.325
Grimm NB, Faeth SH, Golubiewski NE et al (2008) Global change and the ecology of cities. Science (80-) 319:756–760. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150195
Guarulhos (2018) Lista de espécies da fauna silvestre com ocorrência no município de Guarulhos. Diário Of do Município Guarulhos XVIII:1–7
Guix JC (2004) An annotated list of birds in three parks of São Paulo city, SE Brazil, with observations on their feeding habits. Grup Estud Ecológicos 7:1–25. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
Hsieh TC, Ma KH, Chao A (2016) iNEXT: an R package for rarefaction and extrapolation of species diversity (Hill numbers). Methods Ecol Evol 7:1451–1456. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.12613
IBGE (2020) Brasil | Cidades e Estados | IBGE. https://www.ibge.gov.br/cidades-e-estados.html?view=municipio. Accessed 1 Jun 2020
IBGE (2015) Áreas urbanizadas do Brasil. Série Relatórios Metodológicos, Rio de Janeiro, RJ
Ikin K, Beaty RM, Lindenmayer DB et al (2013) Pocket parks in a compact city: how do birds respond to increasing residential density? Landsc Ecol 28:45–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-012-9811-7
IUCN (2019) The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. In: Version 2019–2. http://www.iucnredlist.org. Accessed 20 Oct 2019
Kang W, Minor ES, Park CR, Lee D (2015) Effects of habitat structure, human disturbance, and habitat connectivity on urban forest bird communities. Urban Ecosyst 18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-014-0433-5
Kronka FJN, Nalon MA, Matsukuma CK et al (2005) Inventário florestal da vegetação nativa do Estado de São Paulo. Secretaria do Meio Ambiente, Instituto Florestal, São Paulo, SP
Laliberté E, Legendre P (2010) A distance-based framework for measuring functional diversity from multiple traits. Ecology 91:299–305
Laliberté E, Legendre P, Shipley B (2014) FD: measuring functional diversity from multiple traits, and other tools for functional ecology. R package version 1.0–12.
Latta SC, Musher LJ, Latta KN, Katzner TE (2013) Influence of human population size and the built environment on avian assemblages in urban green spaces. Urban Ecosyst 16:463–479. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-012-0282-z
Lee MB, Carroll JP (2018) Effects of patch size and basal area on avian taxonomic and functional diversity in pine forests: Implication for the influence of habitat quality on the species–area relationship. Ecol Evol 8:6909–6920. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.4208
Lessi BF, Pires JSR, Batisteli AF, Fors IMG (2016) Vegetation, urbanization, and bird richness in a brazilian periurban area. Ornitol Neotrop 27:
Leveau LM, Isla FI, Bellocq MI (2015) Urbanization and the temporal homogenization of bird communities: a case study in central Argentina. Urban Ecosyst 18:1461–1476. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-015-0469-1
Leveau LM, Isla FI, Isabel Bellocq M (2020) From town to town: Predicting the taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic diversity of birds using NDVI. Ecol Indic 119:106703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.106703
Leveau LM, Leveau CM (2004) Comunidades de aves en un gradiente urbano de la ciudad de Mar del Plata, Argentina. Hornero 19:13–21
Leveau LM, Leveau CM, Villegas M et al (2017) Bird communities along urbanization gradients: A comparative analysis among three neotropical cities. Ornitol Neotrop 28:77–87
Leveau LM, Ruggiero A, Matthews TJ, Isabel Bellocq M (2019) A global consistent positive effect of urban green area size on bird richness. Avian Res 10:30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40657-019-0168-3
Loss SR, Will T, Loss SS, Marra PP (2014) Bird–building collisions in the United States: Estimates of annual mortality and species vulnerability. Condor 116:8–23. https://doi.org/10.1650/condor-13-090.1
Luck GW, Carter A, Smallbone L (2013) Changes in bird functional diversity across multiple land uses: Interpretations of functional redundancy depend on functional group identity. PLoS One 8. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0063671
Luck GW, Lavorel S, McIntyre S, Lumb K (2012) Improving the application of vertebrate trait-based frameworks to the study of ecosystem services. J Anim Ecol 81:1065–1076. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2012.01974.x
Luna Á, Romero-Vidal P, Hiraldo F, Tella JL (2018) Cities may save some threatened species but not their ecological functions. PeerJ 2018. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4908
MacArthur RH, Macarthur JW (1961) On bird species diversity. Ecology 42:594–598
MacGregor-Fors I (2008) Relation between habitat attributes and bird richness in a western Mexico suburb. Landsc Urban Plan 84:92–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2007.06.010
MacGregor-Fors I, Escobar-Ibáñez JF (2017) Avian ecology in latin american cityscapes. Springer International Publishing, Cham
MacGregor-Fors I, Escobar F, Rueda-Hernández R et al (2016) City “green” contributions: The role of urban greenspaces as reservoirs for biodiversity. Forests 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/f7070146
MacGregor-Fors I, Ortega-Álvarez R (2011) Fading from the forest: Bird community shifts related to urban park site-specific and landscape traits. Urban for Urban Green 10:239–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2011.03.004
MacGregor-Fors I, Payton ME (2013) Contrasting diversity values: statistical inferences based on overlapping confidence intervals. PLoS One 8:e56794. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0056794
MacGregor-Fors I, Schondube JE (2011) Gray vs. green urbanization: Relative importance of urban features for urban bird communities. Basic Appl Ecol 12:372–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.baae.2011.04.003
MacGregor-Fors I, Schondube JE (2012) Urbanizing the wild: Shifts in bird communities associated to small human settlements. Rev Mex Biodivers 83:477–486
Magnago LFS, Edwards DP, Edwards FA et al (2014) Functional attributes change but functional richness is unchanged after fragmentation of Brazilian Atlantic forests. J Ecol 102:475–485. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.12206
Martensen AC, Ribeiro MC, Banks-Leite C et al (2012) Associations of forest cover, fragment area, and connectivity with neotropical understory bird species richness and abundance. Conserv Biol 26:1100–1111. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2012.01940.x
Marzluff JM (2017) A decadal review of urban ornithology and a prospectus for the future. Ibis (Lond 1859) 159:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1111/ibi.12430
Maseko MST, Zungu MM, Ehlers Smith DA et al (2019) High microhabitat heterogeneity drives high functional traits in forest birds in five protected forest areas in the urban mosaic of Durban, South Africa. Glob Ecol Conserv 18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00645
Mason NWH, De Bello F, Mouillot D et al (2013) A guide for using functional diversity indices to reveal changes in assembly processes along ecological gradients. J Veg Sci 24:794–806. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvs.12013
Mason NWH, Mouillot D, Lee WG, Wilson JB (2005) Functional richness, functional evenness and functional divergence: the primary components of functional diversity. Oikos 111:112–118. https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2017.6468
McKinney ML (2006) Urbanization as a major cause of biotic homogenization. Biol Conserv 127:247–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2005.09.005
Melo MA, Godoy FI, de Almeida Magalhães AF (2016) Avifauna da Estação Evangelista de Souza, APA Capivari-Monos, São Paulo. Ornithologia 9:12–27
Melo MA, da Silva MAG, Piratelli AJ (2020) Improvement of vegetation structure enhances bird functional traits and habitat resilience in an area of ongoing restoration in the Atlantic Forest. An Acad Bras Cienc 92:20191241. https://doi.org/10.1590/0001-3765202020191241
Menard S (2001) Applied logistic regression analysis: Sage university series on quantitative applications in the social sciences. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA
Morelli F, Benedetti Y, Ibáñez-Álamo JD et al (2016) Evidence of evolutionary homogenization of bird communities in urban environments across Europe. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 25. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12486
Morrison EB, Lindell CA (2012) Birds and bats reduce insect biomass and leaf damage in tropical forest restoration sites. Ecol Appl 22:1526–1534. https://doi.org/10.1890/11-1118.1
Mouillot D, Mason WHN, Dumay O et al (2005) International association for ecology functional regularity : a neglected aspect of functional diversity functional regularity : a neglected aspect of functional diversity. Oecologia 142:353–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00442-004-1744-7
Myers N, Mittermeier RA, Mittermeier CG et al (2000) Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403:853–858
Naimi B, Hamm NAS, Groen TA et al (2014) Where is positional uncertainty a problem for species distribution modelling? Ecography (cop) 37:191–203. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.2013.00205.x
Oksanen J, Blanchet FG, Friendly M, Kindt R, Legendre P, McGlinn D, Minchin PR, O’Hara RB, Simpson GL, Solymos P, Stevens MHH, Szoecs E, Wagner H (2019) vegan: Community Ecology Package. R package version 2.5-6. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=vegan
Oliveira Hagen E, Hagen O, Ibáñez-Álamo JD et al (2017) Impacts of Urban Areas and Their Characteristics on Avian Functional Diversity. Front Ecol Evol 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2017.00084
Ortega-Álvarez R, MacGregor-Fors I (2009) Living in the big city: Effects of urban land-use on bird community structure, diversity, and composition. Landsc Urban Plan 90:189–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2008.11.003
Palmer GC, Fitzsimons JA, Antos MJ, White JG (2008) Determinants of native avian richness in suburban remnant vegetation: Implications for conservation planning. Biol Conserv 141:2329–2341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2008.06.025
Paradis E, Schliep K (2018) ape 5.0: an environment for modern phylogenetics and evolutionary analyses in R. Bioinformatics 35:526–528
Pauchard A, Barbosa O, Maira J et al (2013) Regional assessment of Latin America: Rapid urban development and social economic inequity threaten biodiversity hotspots. Urbanization, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Challenges and Opportunities: A Global Assessment. Springer, Netherlands, pp 589–608
Pauw A, Louw K (2012) Urbanization drives a reduction in functional diversity in a guild of nectar-feeding birds. Ecol Soc 17. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-04758-170227
Pedreros AM, Urrutia MG, Montoya FE, Norambuena HV (2018) Effects of vegetation strata and human disturbance on bird diversity in green areas in a city in southern Chile. Avian Res 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40657-018-0130-9
Pellissier V, Cohen M, Boulay A, Clergeau P (2012) Birds are also sensitive to landscape composition and configuration within the city centre. Landsc Urban Plan 104:181–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.10.011
Pena JCC, Martello F, Ribeiro MC et al (2017) Street trees reduce the negative effects of urbanization on birds. PLoS One 12. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0174484
Peris S, Montelongo T (2014) Birds and small urban parks: A study in a high plateau city. Turkish J Zool 38:316–325. https://doi.org/10.3906/zoo-1305-20
Perrella DF, Ferrari DS, Katayama MV et al (2018) A Avifauna do Parque Estadual das Fontes do Ipiranga, um remanescente de Mata Atlântica imerso na área urbana de São Paulo, SP. Ornithologia 10:4–16
Petchey OL, Gaston KJ (2006) Functional diversity: Back to basics and looking forward. Ecol Lett 9:741–758. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.00924.x
Puga-Caballero A, MacGregor-Fors I, Ortega-Álvarez R (2014) Birds at the urban fringe: avian community shifts in different peri-urban ecotones of a megacity. Ecol Res 29:619–628. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11284-014-1145-2
R Core Team (2018) R: A language and environment for statistical computing
Ramalho CE, Hobbs RJ (2012) Time for a change: Dynamic urban ecology. Trends Ecol Evol 27:179–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2011.10.008
Ramos-Ribeiro RR (2014) Green Belt Biosphere Reserve in the Brazilian City of São Paulo. Ecol Quest 20:93-97. https://doi.org/10.12775/EQ.2014.021
Reis E, López-Iborra GM, Pinheiro RT (2012) Changes in bird species richness through different levels of urbanization: Implications for biodiversity conservation and garden design in Central Brazil. Landsc Urban Plan 107:31–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.04.009
Rodrigues RC, Hasui É, Assis JC et al (2019) ATLANTIC BIRD TRAITS: a data set of bird morphological traits from the Atlantic forests of South America. Ecology. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.2647
Sacchi R, Gentilli A, Razzetti E, Barbieri F (2002) Effects of building features on density and flock distribution of feral pigeons Columba livia var. domestica in an urban environment. Can J Zool 80:48–54. https://doi.org/10.1139/z01-202
Sacco AG, Rui AM, Bergmann FB et al (2015) Perda de diversidade taxonômica e funcional de aves em área urbana no sul do Brasil. Iheringia - Ser Zool 105:276–287. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-476620151053276287
Sandström UG, Angelstam P, Mikusiński G (2006) Ecological diversity of birds in relation to the structure of urban green space. Landsc Urban Plan 77:39–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2005.01.004
São Paulo (2017) Plano municipal de conservação e recuperação da Mata Atlântica do município de São Paulo. São Paulo, SP
São Paulo (2018a) Decreto no 63.853, de 27 de novembro de 2018. Declara as espécies da fauna silvestre no Estado de São Paulo regionalmente extintas, as ameaçadas de extinção, as quase ameaçadas e as com dados insuficientes para avaliação, e dá providências correlatas. Diário Of do Estado São Paulo 1–35
São Paulo (2018b) Inventário da Fauna Silvestre do Município de São Paulo. São Paulo, SP
Schunck F (2008) As aves do município de São Paulo: conhecimento histórico, diversidade e conservação. In: Malagoli LR, Fernanda Blauth B, Whately M (eds) Além do concreto: contribuições para a proteção da biodiversidade paulistana. Instituto Socioambiental, São Paulo, SP, pp 270–313
Schunck F, Rodrigues KE (2016) Avifauna do Parque Estadual da Várzea do rio Embu-Guaçu e sua importância para a conservação das aves de várzea da porção Sudoeste da Região. Ornithologia 9:58–79
Schunck F, Silveira LF, Nascimento VS (2019) 118 years of ornithological knowledge of a forgotten region of the Atlantic Forest near the largest city in South America. Wilson J Ornithol 131:758. https://doi.org/10.1676/1559-4491-131.4.758
Sekercioglu CH (2012) Bird functional diversity and ecosystem services in tropical forests, agroforests and agricultural areas. J Ornithol 153:153–161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-012-0869-4
Sick H (1997) Ornitologia Brasileira, 2nd edn. Nova Fronteira, Rio de Janeiro
Sol D, González-Lagos C, Moreira D et al (2014) Urbanisation tolerance and the loss of avian diversity. Ecol Lett 17:942–950. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12297
Sol D, Trisos C, Múrria C et al (2020) The worldwide impact of urbanisation on avian functional diversity. Ecol Lett 23:962–972. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.13495
Somenzari M, Amaral PP do, Cueto VR et al (2018) An overview of migratory birds in Brazil. Pap Avulsos Zool 58:3. https://doi.org/10.11606/1807-0205/2018.58.03
Strohbach MW, Lerman SB, Warren PS (2013) Are small greening areas enhancing bird diversity? Insights from community-driven greening projects in Boston. Landsc Urban Plan 114:69–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2013.02.007
Toledo MCB, Donatelli RJ, Batista GT (2012) Relation between green spaces and bird community structure in an urban area in Southeast Brazil. Urban Ecosyst 15:111–131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-011-0195-2
Tomás Ibarra J, Martin K (2015) Biotic Homogenization: Loss of Avian Functional Richness and Habitat Specialists in Disturbed Andean Temperate Forests. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2015.11.008
Tonetti VR, Rego MA, De Luca AC et al (2017) Historical knowledge, richness and relative representativeness of the avifauna of the largest native urban rainforest in the world. Zoologia 34:1–18. https://doi.org/10.3897/zoologia.34.e13728
Tratalos J, Fuller RA, Warren PH et al (2007) Urban form, biodiversity potential and ecosystem services. Landsc Urban Plan 83:308–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2007.05.003
Tremblay MA, St. Clair CC (2011) Permeability of a heterogeneous urban landscape to the movements of forest songbirds. J Appl Ecol 48:679–688. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.01978.x
Tryjanowski P, Morelli F, Mikula P et al (2017) Bird diversity in urban green space: A large-scale analysis of differences between parks and cemeteries in Central Europe. Urban for Urban Green 27:264–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.08.014
United Nations (2018) World urbanization prospects - population division. https://population.un.org/wup/. Accessed 4 Mar 2020
Vale MM, Tourinho L, Lorini ML et al (2018) Endemic birds of the Atlantic Forest: traits, conservation status, and patterns of biodiversity. J F Ornithol 89:193–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/jofo.12256
Veloso HP, Rangel-Filho ALR, Lima JCA (1991) Classificação da vegetação brasileira, adaptada a um sistema universal. Intituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística - IBGE, Rio de Janeiro
Vielliard JME, Silva ML da (2010) Bioacústica: Bases teóricas e regras práticas de uso em ornitologia. Ornitol e concervação ciência Apl técnicas Pesqui e Levant 315–326
Villegas M, Garitano-Zavala Á (2010) Bird community responses to different urban conditions in La Paz, Bolivia. Urban Ecosyst 13:375–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-010-0126-7
Villéger S, Grenouillet G, Brosse S (2013) Decomposing functional β-diversity reveals that low functional β-diversity is driven by low functional turnover in European fish assemblages. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 22:671–681. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12021
Villéger S, Mason NWH, Mouillot D (2008) New multidimensional functional diversity indices for a multifaceted framework in functional ecology. Ecology 89:2290–2301. https://doi.org/10.1890/07-1206.1
Vitousek PM, D’Antonio CM, Loope LL et al (1997) Introduced Species: J Ecol 21:1–16
Wilman H, Belmaker J, Simpson J et al (2014) EltonTraits 1 . 0 : Species-level foraging attributes of the world ’ s birds and mammals. Ecology 95:2027
Yao L, Ding Y, Xu H et al (2020) Patterns of diversity change for forest vegetation across different climatic regions - A compound habitat gradient analysis approach. Glob Ecol Conserv 23:e01106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e01106
Zuur AF, Ieno EN, Walker N et al (2009) Mixed effects models and extensions in ecology with R. Springer, New York, New York, NY
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the financial aid provided by the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo – FAPESP (2016/26082-1; USP-Humboldt Universtät zu Berlin – Strategic Partnership Initiatives, 2017), and the Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Recursos Naturais of the Universidade Federal de São Carlos (UFSCar). We also thank the colleagues from the Guarulhos Zoo Carlos Ferreira, David Braga and Cristiane Bolochio for the help with data collection. We are grateful to Fundação Florestal – COTEC (SMA), DEPAVE-3 (SVMA), and Guarulhos Zoo (SEMA) for permitting the conduction of ornithological studies in protected areas, and to the managers of Cantareira and Itaberaba State Parks Elisângela Moino and Ana Lúcia Arromba, respectively, for helping us in the field logistic. We sincerelly appreciate all valuable comments and suggestions from two anonymous reviewers, which substantially improved the quality of the manuscript. We also thank Felipe Martello, Luiz dos Anjos, Mercival Francisco, and Reginaldo Donatelli for valuable comments on earlier version of this manuscript.
Funding
São Paulo Research Foundation – FAPESP (2016/26082–1).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors have equally contributed to the research.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
The authors declare that they have consented to participate in this manuscript.
Consent for publication
The authors declare that they agree with the publication of this manuscript.
Conflicts of interest/Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Melo, M.A., Sanches, P.M., Silva Filho, D.F. et al. Influence of habitat type and distance from source area on bird taxonomic and functional diversity in a Neotropical megacity. Urban Ecosyst 25, 545–560 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-021-01169-5
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-021-01169-5