Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Floodplain forest as an ideal environment for the reproduction of wild boar?

  • Original Article
  • Published:
European Journal of Wildlife Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Floodplain forests provide a highly suitable environment for wild boar, especially because they offer a sufficient quantity of good-quality food across the seasons. Combined with year-round additional feeding and treatment, wild boar enjoy ideal living conditions in floodplain forests, which should have a positive effect on reproduction and, in turn, an increase in population. We expected the high carrying capacity of the floodplain forest environment to be reflected in young boar showing greater body weight and have a higher layer of subcutaneous fat, young females being in their first heat earlier, and females of all ages having more young. This was verified on a sample of wild boar females collected in Czechia’s largest floodplain forest, which extends above the confluence of the Morava and Dyje Rivers and which is fenced off and used for breeding hoofed ruminant mammals. In addition to determining body characteristics and examining reproductive tracts, food quality was also analysed based on an analysis of stomach contents. Body and reproductive characteristics were compared with available data for the South Moravia. It has been confirmed that, in the floodplain forest, wild boar have a sufficient quantity of good-quality food all year round, yet they reach a smaller body size across all age classes. Piglets ovulated more eggs, while in contrast older females ovulated fewer. That is also why they gave birth to fewer piglets per litter. Wild boar in the floodplain forest gave birth later, with a birthing peak in May–June. This delay can be explained by the adaptation of wild boar populations in floodplain forests to the annual floods that come in March. We estimate that wild boar are able to respond flexibly not only to the food conditions of their environment, but also to the risk of possible mortality and other significant stressors, and to adapt their reproductive strategy accordingly.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ballari SA, Barrios-García MN (2013) A review of wild boar (Sus scrofa) diet and factors affecting food selection in the native and introduced ranges. Mammal Rev 44:124–134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barančeková M (2004) The roe deer diet: is floodplain forest optimal habitat? Folia Zool 53:285–292

    Google Scholar 

  • Barasona JA, Risalde MA, Ortíz JA, Gonzáles-Barrio D, Che-Amat A, Pérez-Sancho M, Vargas-Castillo L, Xeidakis A, Juradu-Tarifa E, Gortázar Ch (2020) Disease-mediated piglet mortality prevents wild boar population growth in fenced overabundant settings. Eur J Wildl Res 66:26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bieber C, Ruf T (2005) Population dynamics in wild boar Sus scrofa: ecology, elasticity of growth rate and implications for the management of pulsed resource consumers. J Appl Ecol 42:1203–1213

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bisi F, Chirichella R, Chianucci F, Von Hardenberg J, Cutini A, Martinoli A, Apollonio M (2018) Climate, tree masting and spatial behaviour in wild boar (Sus scrofa L.): insight from a long-term study. Ann For Sci 75:46

  • Blöschl G, Hall J, Parajka J, Perdigão RAP, Merz B, Arheimer B, Aronica GT, Bilibashi A, Bonacci O, Borga M, Čanjevac I, Castellarin A, Chirico GB, Claps P, Fiala K, Frolova N, Gorbachova L, Gül A, Hannaford J, Harrigan S, Kireeva M, Kiss A, Kjeldsen TR, Kohnová S, Koskela JJ, Ledvinka O, Macdonald N, Mavrova-Guirguinova M, Mediero L, Merz R, Molnar P, Montanari A, Murphy C, Osuch M, Ovcharuk V, Radevski I, Rogger M, Salinas JL, Sauquet E, Šraj M, Szolgay J, Viglione A, Volpi E, Wilson D, Zaimi K, Živković N (2017) Changing climate shifts timing of European floods. Science 357:588–590

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boitani L, Mattei L (1992) Ageing wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) by tooth eruption. In: Spitz F et al. (Eds.), Ongulés/Ungulates. SFEPM-IRGM, Paris-Toulouse, pp 399–402

  • Brázdil R, Chromá K, Řezníčková L, Valášek H, Dolák L, Stachoň Z, Soukalová E, Dobrovolný P (2014) The use of taxation records in assessing historical floods in South Moravia, Czech Republic. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 18:3873–3889

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Briedermann L (1965) Les composantes de l’alimentation du Sanglier en Europe Centrale. Rapports di VIIème de l’Union des Biologistes du Gibier. Belgrade, Ljubljane, pp 207–213

  • Brogi R, Chirichella R, Brivio F, Merli E, Bottero E, Apollonio M (2021) Capital-income breeding in wild boar: A comparison between two sexes. Sci Rep 11:4579

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cilia G, Bertelloni F, Piredda I, Ponti MN, Turchi B, Cantile C, Parisi F, Pinzauti P, Armani A, Palmas B, Noworol M, Cerri D, Fratini F (2020) Presence of pathogenic Leptospira spp. in the reproductive system and fetuses of wild boars (Sus scrofa) in Italy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 14:e0008982

  • Cellina S (2008) Effects of supplemental feeding on the body condition and reproductive state of wild boar Sus scrofa in Luxembourg. D. Phil. Thesis, University of Sussex

  • Creel S, Dantzer B, Goymann W, Rubenstein DR (2013) The ecology of stress: Effects of the social environment. Func Ecol 27:66–80

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Croft S, Massei G, Smith GC, Fouracre D, Aegerter JN (2020) Modelling spatial and temporal patterns of African swine fever in an isolated wild boar population to support decision-making. Front Vet Sci 7:154

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cukor J, Linda R, Václavek P, Mahlerová K, Šatrán P, Havránek F (2020) Confirmed cannibalism in wild boar and its possible role in African swine fever transmission. Transbound Emerg Dis 67:1068–1073

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Drimaj J, Kamler J, Hošek M, Zeman J, Plhal R, Mikulka O, Kudláček M (2019) Reproductive characteristics of wild boar males (Sus scrofa) under different environmental conditions. Acta Vet Brno 88:401–412

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drimaj J, Kamler J, Hošek M, Plhal R, Mikulka O, Zeman J, Drápela K (2020) Reproductive potential of free-living wild boar in Central Europe. Eur J Wildl Res 66:75

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drimaj J, Kamler J, Plhal R, Janata P, Adamec Z, Homolka M (2021) Intensive hunting pressure changes local distribution of wild boar. Hum-Wildl Interact 15:9

    Google Scholar 

  • Einarsson S, Brandt Y, Lundeheim N, Madej A (2008) Stress and its influence on reproduction in pigs: a review. Acta Vet Scand 50:48

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fonseca C, Alves Silva A, Alves J, Vingada J, Soares AMVM (2011) Reproductive performance of wild boar females in Portugal. Eur J Wildl Res 57:363–371

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frauendorf M, Gethöffer F, Siebert U, Keuling O (2016) The influence of environmental and physiological factors on the litter size of wild boar (Sus scrofa) in an agriculture dominated area in Germany. Sci Total Environ 541:877–882

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gethöffer F, Pfarrer C, Siebert U (2018) Histology confirms that macroscopic evaluation of ovaries is a valid method for the assessment of the reproductive status in wild boar. Theriogenology 113:192–196

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gethöffer F, Sodeikat G, Pohlmeyer K (2007) Reproductive parameters of wild boar (Sus scrofa) in three different parts of Germany. Eur J Wildl Res 53:287–297

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Givens MD, Marley MS (2008) Infectious causes of embryonic and fetal mortality. Theriogenology 70:270–285

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Güldenpfennig J, Schmicke M, Hoedemaker M, Siebert U, Keuling O (2020) An approach to stress assessment during hunting: cortisol levels of wild boar (Sus scrofa) during drive hunts. BioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.11.987628

  • Hilmert CJ, Kvasnicka-Gates L, Teoh AN, Bresin K, Fiebiger S (2016) Major flood related strains and pregnancy outcomes. Health Psychol 35:1189–1196

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Honig HJ, Kiffner C, Kramer-Schadt S, Fürst C, Keuling O, Ford AT (2020) Human-wildlife coexistence in a changing world. Conserv Biol 34:786–794

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kamler J, Drimaj J (2021) Stabilization of wild boar populations: reproduction potential of current boars vs. hunting potential of current hunters: Review. Zpravy Les Vyzk 66:95–103

    Google Scholar 

  • Kemp B, Wientjes A, Van Leeuwen J, Hoving L, Soeda N (2011) Key factors to improve production and longevity of primiparous sows. In: Proceedings of the VI SINSUI - Simpósio Internacional de Suinocultura, 10–13 May 2011. Porto Alegre, Brasil, pp 13–22

  • Keuling O, Strauß E, Siebert U (2016) Regulating wild boar populations is somebody else’s problem! Human dimension in wild boar management. Sci Total Environ 554–555:311–319

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keuling O, Podgorski T, Monaco A, Melletti M, Merta D, Albrycht M, Genov PV, Gethoffer F, Vetter SG, Jori F, Scalera R, Gongora J (2018) Eurasian wild boar Sus scrofa (Linnaeus, 1758). In: Melletti M, Meijaard E (eds) Ecology, conservation and management of wild pigs and peccaries. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 202–233

    Google Scholar 

  • Klimo E, Kulhavý J, Prax A, Menšík L, Hadaš P, Mauer O (2013) Functioning of South Moravian floodplain forests (Czech Republic) in forest environment subject to natural and anthropogenic change. Int J For Res 5:248749

  • Lim JS, Vergne T, Pak S-I, Kim E (2021) Modelling the spatial distribution of ASF-positive wild boar carcasses in South Korea using 2019–2020 National Surveillance Data. Animals 11:1208

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Malmsten A, Dalin AM (2016) Puberty in female wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Sweden. Acta Vet Scand 58:55

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Malmsten A, Jansson G, Lundeheim N, Dalin A-M (2017) The reproductive pattern and potential of free ranging female wild boars (Sus scrofa) in Sweden. Acta Vet Scand 59:52

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Massei G, Roy S, Bunting R (2011) Too many hogs? A review of methods to mitigate impact by wild boar and feral hogs. Hum Wildl Interact 5:79–99

    Google Scholar 

  • Massei G, Kindberg J, Licoppe A, Gačić D, Šprem N, Kamler J, Baubet E, Hohmann U, Monaco A, Ozoliņš J, Cellina S, Podgórski T, Fonseca C, Markov N, Pokorny B, Rosell C, Náhlik A (2015) Wild boar populations up, numbers of hunters down? A review of trends and implications for Europe. Pest Manag Sci 71:492–500

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matschke GH (1967) Ageing European wild hogs by dentition. J Wildl Manag 31:109–113

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mikulka O, Zeman J, Drimaj J, Plhal R, Adamec Z, Kamler J, Heroldová M (2018) The importance of natural food in wild boar (Sus scrofa) diet during autumn and winter. J Vertebr Biol 67:165–172

    Google Scholar 

  • Mysterud A, Sæther BE (2011) Climate change and implications for the future distribution and management of ungulates in Europe. In: Putman R, Apollonio M, Andersen R (eds) Ungulate management in Europe, Problems and Practices. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 349–375

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Oja R, Kaasik A, Valdmann H (2014) Winter severity or supplementary feeding—which matters more for wild boar? Acta Theriol 59:553–559

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Probst C, Globig A, Knoll B, Conraths FJ, Depner K (2017) Behaviour of free ranging wild boar towards their dead fellows: potential implications for the transmission of African swine fever. R Soc Open Sci 4:170054

  • Romero LM (2004) Physiological stress in ecology: lessons from biomedical research. Trends Ecol Evol 19:249–255

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skoták V, Drimaj J, Kamler J (2021) Evaluation of damage to forest tree plantations by the wild boar in the Czech Republic. Hum-Wildl Interact 15:13

    Google Scholar 

  • Stephens PA, Boyd IL, McNamara JM, Houston AI (2009) Capital breeding and income breeding: their meaning, measurement, and worth. Ecol 90:2057–2067

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Touzot L, Schermer É, Venner S, Delzon S, Rousset C, Baubet É, Gaillard J‐M, Gamelon M (2020) How does increasing mast seeding frequency affect population dynamics of seed consumers? Wild boar as a case study. Ecol Appl 30:e02134

  • Turek K, Friedlová E, Strejček R, Samec P (2018) The development of the wild boars abundance in the Czech Republic, and influence of wild boar on small game populations. In: Kamler J, Drimaj J (eds) 12th Symposium on Wild Boar and Other Suids, Conference Proceedings. Mendel University in Brno, Brno, pp 79–88

    Google Scholar 

  • Ugarković D, Šprem N, Ugarković NK, Oršanić M (2020) Flooding as a cause of ungulate mortality in floodplain forests in Croatia. J for Res 31:1045–1052

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vericad JR (1981) Estimación de la edad fetal y períodos de concepción y parto del jabalí (Sus scrofa L.) en los pirineos occidentales. In: XV Congreso Internacional Fauna Cinegética y Silvestre, Trujillo, pp 811–820

  • Vetter SG, Ruf T, Bieber C, Arnold W (2015) What is a mild winter? Regional differences in within-species responses to climate change. PLoS One 10:e0132178

  • Vetter SG, Puskas Z, Bieber C, Ruf T (2020) How climate change and wildlife management affect population structure in wild boars. Sci Rep 10:7298

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Veylit L, Sæther B-E, Gaillard J-M, Baubet E, Gamelon M (2020) How do conditions at birth influence early‐life growth rates in wild boar? Ecosphere 11:e03167

  • Von Essen E (2020) How wild boar hunting is becoming a battleground. Leis Sci 42:552–569

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vratarić P, Grubešić M, Krapinec K, Getz D (2005) Hunting management in floodplain forests. In: Vukelić J (Ed.), Floodplain forests in Croatia. Academy of Forest Sciences, Zagreb, pp 352–370

  • Wilcox JT, Van Vuren DH (2009) Wild pigs as predators in oak woodlands of California. J Mammal 90:114–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeman J, Hrbek J, Drimaj J, Kudláček T, Kamler J, Plhal R, Heroldová M (2016) Wild boar impact to the natural regeneration of oak and acorn importance in its diet. Acta Univ Agric Silvic Mendel Brun 64(2):579–585

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeman J, Hrbek J, Drimaj J, Kudláček T, Heroldová M (2018) Habitat and management influence on a seasonal diet composition of wild boar. Biologia 73:259–265

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank Židlochovice Forest Enterprise and Forest of the Czech Republic, State Enterprise, for help with the collection of samples and we also thank Kateřina Poulíčková for help with laboratory analyses, and we also thank Kateřina Chromá for the graphic finalization of Appendix, Fig. S1.

Funding

This study was supported by the National Agency for Agriculture Research, grant No. QK1920184, and the Specific University Research Fund of the FFWT Mendel University in Brno, grant No. LDF_VP_2018025. R. Brázdil was supported by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic for SustES—Adaptation strategies for sustainable ecosystem services and food security under adverse environmental conditions project, ref. CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_019/0000797.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Department of Forest Protection and Wildlife Management, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 1, 613 00, Brno, Czech Republic

    Jakub Drimaj, Jiří Kamler, Miloslav Homolka, Ondřej Mikulka & Radim Plhal

  2. Faculty of Science, Department of Geography, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 611 37, Brno, Czech Republic

    Rudolf Brázdil

  3. Department of Climate Variability and Climate Change Analysis, Global Change Research Institute, Czech Academy of Sciences, Bělidla 986/4a, 603 00, Brno, Czech Republic

    Rudolf Brázdil

Authors
  1. Jakub Drimaj
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jiří Kamler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Miloslav Homolka
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Ondřej Mikulka
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Radim Plhal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Rudolf Brázdil
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jakub Drimaj.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 848 KB)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Drimaj, J., Kamler, J., Homolka, M. et al. Floodplain forest as an ideal environment for the reproduction of wild boar?. Eur J Wildl Res 67, 89 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-021-01537-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-021-01537-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation