Full length reviewsBiological flora of Central Europe: Marsilea quadrifolia L
Section snippets
Taxonomy and evolution
Systematic position: Pteridophyta
Division. Pteridophyta
Class. Polypodiopsida
Order. Salviniales (Marsileales)
Family. Marsileaceae
Genus. Marsilea
Species. Marsilea quadrifolia L.
Marsilea quadrifolia L. Sp. Pl. 2: 1099 (1753), commonly named European water clover but also four-leaf clover, water shamrock and pepperwort, is an aquatic fern with creeping, fleshy, adventitious roots containing multiple rhizomes (Benson et al., 2004, Fig. 1). The species owes its name to Carl Linnaeus (1753) who named
Life cycle
The life cycle of M. quadrifolia is characterized by the alternation of generations, i.e. alternate succession of haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte (Johnson, 1986). More often, however, vegetative propagation through the division of rhizomes occurs.
Reproduction and development
Vegetative propagation occurs by means of rhizomes.
Sexual reproduction takes place via sporocarps and the release of micro- and megaspores (Schneider and Pryer, 2002, Fig. 1B). Gametophyte generation is completed within 24 h, and the first
Previous and current distribution
M. quadrifolia has a widespread global distribution: it is native to Eurasia and considered an alien species in North America (Benson et al., 2004). Populations have been reported in the following countries and regions (Strat, 2012; Hassler, 2020): Afghanistan, Albania, Austria, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Canada, China, Croatia, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, India, Iran, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Moldova, Montenegro,
Ethnobotanical uses
M. quadrifolia has been harvested for centuries for its ethnobotanical importance and as a source of food (Ripa et al., 2009). In India, it has been used in the local Ayurvedic medicine by the Vaidyas (people who practice Ayurveda) for thousands of years (Joy et al., 2019). In particular, it is used by the Indian tribal communities of Kadars, Pulaiyars, Malasars, Malaimalasars, Anamailais hills, and Western Ghats (Ramachandran, 2007). Here, the plant is called Sunishannaka and references can be
Threats
M. quadrifolia is mainly threatened by human activities that result in habitat loss and degradation. Drainage of wetlands, management changes of fishponds, and agriculture intensification or abandonment are responsible for its population decline throughout Europe (Dehondt et al., 2005). Water eutrophication and pollution, and changes in agricultural practices such as the application of herbicides, are responsible for the species extirpation in Spain (Moreno, 2008), and the cause of a strong
Inspirations for further research
Several experimental studies have already been conducted in M. quadrifolia, including morphological, ecophysiological and medicinal studies. However, to gain further insight into M. quadrifolia conservation needs, it may be appropriate to focus on the secondary habitat of the species, i.e., rice paddies. In this context, information is lacking within the communities where M. quadrifolia grows, such as the relationship with other invasive weeds as well as with rice. Indeed, even though it has
Funding
The Grant of Excellence Departments, MIUR-Italy (ARTICOLO 1, COMMI 314–337 LEGGE 232/2016) is gratefully acknowledged for the support to one of the authors (Prof. Thomas Abeli).
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors report no declarations of interest.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Dr. A. Efremov (Omsk State Pedagogical University, Russia) for implementing data on species distribution in Asia. We would like to thank Fiona Jane White (University of Pavia) for revising the English.
References (125)
- et al.
Formation and impact of granules in fostering clean energy production and wastewater treatment in upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors
Renew. Sust. Energ. Revr.
(2012) - et al.
A multi-level analysis to evaluate the extinction risk of and conservation strategy for the aquatic fern Marsilea quadrifolia L. In Europe
Aquat. Bot.
(2013) - et al.
A study of the genetic variation of the aquatic fern Marsilea quadrifolia L. Preserved in botanical collections in Poland and originated from natural populations in Europe
Flora
(2014) - et al.
Leaf characteristics and photosynthetic performance of floating, emergent and terrestrial leaves of Marsilea quadrifolia
Taiwania
(2007) - et al.
First results from conservation studies of chlorophyllous spores of the Royal fern (Osmunda regalis, Osmundaceae)
Cryobiology.
(2012) - et al.
Establishment success of 25 rare wetland species introduced into restored habitats is best predicted by ecological distance to source habitats
Biol. Conserv.
(2011) - et al.
Changing land use and its impact on biodiversity
Basic Appl. Ecol.
(2005) - et al.
Arbuscular mycorrhizae in association with aquatic and marshy plant species in Goa, India
Aquat. Bot.
(2007) - et al.
Marsilea quadrifolia: a new bioagent for treating wastewater
Water Air Soil Pollut.
(2018) - et al.
Susceptibilities of some aquatic ferns to paddy herbicide bensulfuron methyl
Weed Biol. Manag.
(2004)