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Hydrochemical appraisal and solute acquisitions in Seti River Basin, Central Himalaya, Nepal

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Abstract

The chemical characterization and assessment of the water quality in the headwater areas of the Himalaya are necessary for securing the water in the future. This study aims to assess the hydrochemistry and water quality concerning drinking and irrigational uses in the Seti River Basin (SRB), Nepal. A total of 45 water samples were collected in 2016 from the SRB during pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon seasons, and pH, EC, TDS, and DO were measured on-site, whereas Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+, Cl˗, SO4, NO3˗, and dissolved Si were analyzed in the laboratory. The results revealed mildly alkaline pH (8.40 ± 0.43) with the pattern of average ionic dominancy: Ca2+  > Mg2+  > Na+  > K+ and HCO3 > SO42− > Cl˗ > NO3˗ for cations and anions, respectively. Gibbs diagram implied that the lithogenic weathering mainly controlled the solute acquisition process, which was further confirmed by the Piper diagram, exhibiting Ca–HCO3 as the governing hydrochemical facies (91%). The average molar ratios were 0.88, 8.33, and 6.86 of (Ca2+ + Mg2+)/TZ+, (Ca2+ + Mg2+)/(Na+ + K+), and HCO3/(Na+ + K+), respectively, which specified that the carbonate weathering largely controlled the solute acquisition processes with a minor contribution of silicates. The mass budget calculation also confirmed the dominance of carbonate weathering (72.0%, 78.9%, and 62.0% in Pre-Monsoon, Monsoon, and Post-Monsoon, respectively) and the high monsoon rainfall’s dilution effect to anthropogenic input of cations. Principal component analysis and correlation matrix exhibited that the major sources of ions in the basin were geogenic with minor anthropic signatures. Furthermore, water quality in connection to drinking and irrigation uses revealed that the basin has mostly retained its natural water quality. This investigation suggests that regular monitoring and assessment are essential for maintaining the water quality and ecological integrity in the Himalayan river basins.

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Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Prof. Fan Zhang and Dr. Zeng Chen for supporting this research work from the Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences. We would also like to thank the Central Department of Environmental Science, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal, for the official support in this research work.

Funding

This study was financially supported by Kathmandu Center for Research and Education, CAS-TU, Kathmandu, 44618, Nepal.

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Conceptualization: RRP, FUR, GW; data collection: RRP and SA; writing/original draft preparation: RRP, FUR, G.W.; analysis and GIS work: FUR, KB, UB, BR; review and editing: YRB and KR. All authors have approved the final version.

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Correspondence to Guanxing Wang.

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Appendix

Appendix

See Fig. 11, 12, 13

Fig. 11
figure 11

Geological map of the Seti River Basin (SRB), Central Himalaya, Nepal. Mz: It belongs to Tibetan Sedimentary Zone. Mainly shallow continental plate form with local pro-delta facies of early Cretaceous. Sandstone, shale, glauconite with ammonites and belemnites, Pz: Age lies between Cambrian and Permian. Mainly composed of rich detrital sediments, limestone, sandstone, and shale with many fossils of different plant species of that era, na: Precambrian to Lower Paleozoic. Mainly composed of shallow marine sediments of phyllites, sandstone, stromatolite, limestone, quartzites, and black slates along dykes and sills, kgn: Precambrian to Paleozoic. Augen Gneisses and two mica granites mainly Kuncha Group and Nuwakot Group, QI: Pleistocene to quaternary. Fluvial/fluvio-glacial gravels, conglomerates, and lacustrine clay deposit with vertebrate fossils and hx: Precambrian high-grade metamorphic rocks comprising gneisses, quartzites, and marbles. MCT: Main Central Thrust, separate Lesser Himalaya with Higher Himalaya

Fig. 12
figure 12

Land-use/cover map of the Seti River Basin (SRB), Central Himalaya, Nepal

Fig.13
figure 13

Modified from Li et al. (2019)

Structure of the forward model

See Table 6, 7

Table 6 Environmental characterization of the sampling sites in the Seti River Basin (SRB), Central Himalaya, Nepal
Table 7 Average contribution of different reservoirs to the total cations in three seasons

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Pant, R.R., Qaiser, F.U.R., Wang, G. et al. Hydrochemical appraisal and solute acquisitions in Seti River Basin, Central Himalaya, Nepal. Environ Monit Assess 193, 656 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09437-9

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