Abstract
The Nikāya Suttas frequently mention the concept of fear (bhaya) and related synonyms. This concept does not receive much scholarly attention by subsequent Buddhist philosophers. Recent scholars identify a ‘paradox of fear’ in several traditions of classical Indian Buddhism (Brekke 1999; Finnigan 2019; Giustarini 2012). Each scholar points out, in their respective textual contexts, that fear is evaluated in two ways; one positive and the other negative. Brekke calls this the “double role” of fear (1999, p. 443). Each also identify fear as purposely elicited to motivate acts aimed at achieving fearlessness, where freedom from fear is characteristic of nibbāna. They all find this puzzling. Finnigan asks: “Why would one purposefully incite fear if one’s goal is its elimination?” (2019, p. 221). Giustarini says that fear has a “contradictory nature” (2012, p. 513); Brekke calls it “the paradox of fear” (1999, p. 442). This article introduces the ‘paradox of fear’ as it appears in the Bodhicaryāvatāra of Śāntideva and the Nikāya suttas. It then critically examines Brekke and Giustarini’s proposed solutions. It argues that they get some things right in ways that are both supported by the Nikāyas and relevant to Śāntideva but that they leave some important questions unanswered. The article concludes by arguing that these questions are best answered if fear is analysed as appropriate when its objects are related to karma and rebirth.
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23 October 2021
On the page 2, in the line “Finnigan asks: “Why would one purposefully incite fear if one’s goal is its elimination? In logical terms, why generate p if the goal is p?”” the negation symbol was missed before the letter “p”. The sentence should read as “Finnigan asks: “Why would one purposefully incite fear if one’s goal is its elimination? In logical terms, why generate p if the goal is ~p?””.
Notes
Brekke also contextualises Buddhist views on fear in the history of Indian religious thought, reminding us that “fear is a vast subject in Indian literature” (1999, p. 440) and that “there are clear parallels” between Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism in viewing “freedom from fear as a characteristic of the goal of religious striving” (446). Brekke also argues that “the same paradox of fear can be found in Jainism” (443) but thinks that Buddhism is distinctive in its use of “fear as a means to religious striving” (454).
I am here copying the verses cited in Finnigan (2019). It is not a continuous passage, but a series of verses selected and ordered for the purposes of discussion.
I say ‘some’ because Buddhism recognises other forms of causation and does not explain all possible happenings in terms of karmic causation.
Later in Chapter 5 Śāntideva does propose mindfulness (smṛti) as an appropriate remedy to fear “since all fears and incomparable sufferings arise from the mind alone” (5.6). The question remains, however, why Śāntideva (also) considers taking refuge to be a relevant remedy.
All terms cited from the Nikāyas will be in Pāli.
The others are fear of [loss of] livelihood, fear of disrepute, fear of death, and fear of a bad destination (AN9.5).
This might be prefigured in the Devatāsaṃyutta: “‘The straightway’ that path is called, and ‘fearless’ is its destination. The chariot is called ‘unrattling,’. Fitted with wheels of wholesome states.” (SN1.46). According to Buddhagoṣa’s commentary in Spk, ‘the straightway’ refers to the Eightfold Path and the destination, nibbāna, is fearless because “there is nothing to fear in that and because there is no fear for one who has attained it” (cited in Bodhi trans. 2005, p. 376).
Note that while prominent forms of ‘mindfulness of death’ involve fear-generation, this may not be necessary. There are various “ways of recollecting death” (Vims 8.7-8), which might support contemplative practice differently (see Vism. 8). It is also unnecessary that reflection on death should generate fear. The Buddha is recorded as reassuring at least one individual to “not be afraid” of death because his death “will not be a bad one” (SN5.370-1) if he continues in good conduct. This example suggests that whether death should be feared is agent relative. What this agent-relativity amounts to needs explaining. This article will attempt to provide an explanation.
Crosby and Skilton (1998), for instance, translate bhaya as danger in BCA 2.54: “I have transgressed your command. Now at seeing the danger (bhaya), terrified (bhīto), I go to you for refuge. Destroy the danger (bhaya), quickly!” (p. 18). Steinkellner and Peck-Kubaczek (2019) similarly translate bhaya as ‘peril’. But compare with Batchelor (1979) and Wallace and Wallace (1997) who translate it as ‘fear’: e.g. “Previously I transgressed your advice, but now upon seeing this great fear I go to you for refuge. In doing so may this fear be swiftly cleared away” (Batchelor 1979, p. 18); “After neglecting your counsel, in terror I go to you for refuge now as I face this fear. Swiftly remove my fear!” (Wallace and Wallace 1997, p. 27). Lest one object that this difference in translation turns on the fact that Wallace and Wallace and Batchelor are translating from the Tibetan rather than Sanskrit (as reflected in different verse numbering to Crosby and Skilton), Wallace & Wallace use ‘danger’ and Batchelor uses ‘terror’ for bhaya in BCA 2.42; e.g. “Protectors, I, negligent and unaware of this danger, have acquired many vices out of attachment to this transient life” (Wallace and Wallace 1997, p. 26); “O Protectors! I, so unconcerned, unaware of such terror as this, accumulated a great deal of evil, for the sake of this transient life” (Batchelor 1979, pp. 16–17).
Yakkhas (yakshas Skt.) are a broad class of woodland spirits or demons that appear in Hindu, Jain and Buddhist texts. See DeCaroli (2004).
“If these two bright qualities did not protect the world there would not be seen here [any restraint regarding] one's mother, aunts, or the wives of one’s teachers and [other] respected people. The world would become promiscuous like goats and sheep, chickens, arid pigs, dogs, and jackals. But because these two bright qualities protect the world, there is seen here [restraint regarding] one's mother, aunts, or the wives of one's teachers and [other] respected people.” (AN1.52).
I thank an anonymous reviewer for pressing me to engage this point.
Not all forms of pleasure are said to be subject to this analysis. For instance, the Buddha of the Laṭukikopamasutta identifies and endorses various forms of pleasure or bliss that stem from contemplative practice (e.g. the bliss of renunciation, the bliss of seclusion, the bliss of peace, the bliss of enlightenment). “I say of this kind of pleasure that it should be pursued, that it should be developed, that it should be cultivated, that it should not be feared” (MN66.21).
I also grant Brekke’s claim that fear is sometimes used for the purpose of religious conversion, but I think that this is less philosophically interesting than the function of fear to galvanise Buddhist practice.
Abbreviations
AN Aṅguttara Nikāya of The Buddha in Bodhi (trans.) (2012)
Bc Buddhacarita of Aśvaghoṣa in Willeman (trans.) (2009)
BCA Bodhicaryāvatāra of Śāntideva in Crosby & Skilton (trans.) (1998)
Dhp. Dhammapada of The Buddha in Norman (trans.) (1997)
Dhs trsl. Atthasālinī of Buddhagoṣa in Rhys Davids (trans.) (1958)
DN Dīgha Nikāya of The Buddha in Walshe (trans.) (1995)
MN Majjima Nikāya of The Buddha in Ñāṇamoli & Bodhi (trans.) (1995)
Mv Mahāvagga of the Vinaya Piṭaka in I.B.Horner (trans.) (2007)
Mhv Mahāvaṃsa of Mahānāma in Geiger (trans.) (1908)
Miln. Milindapañha in Horner (trans.) (1964)
P. Pāli.
Siks. Śikṣā-samuccaya of Śāntideva in Goodman (trans.) (2016)
SN Saṃyutta Nikāya of The Buddha in Bodhi (trans.) (2005)
Skt. Sanskrit
Spk Sāratthappakāsin of Buddhagoṣa cited in Bodhi (trans.) (2005)
Thūp. Thūpavaṃsa of Vācissara in Jayawickrama (trans.) (1971)
Vism Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa in Ñāṇamoli (trans.) (1964)
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Acknowledgements
Many thanks to Felmon Davis and the helpful suggestions of an anonymous reviewer.
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This research was funded by the Australian Research Council.
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Finnigan, B. The Paradox of Fear in Classical Indian Buddhism. J Indian Philos 49, 913–929 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10781-021-09485-y
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10781-021-09485-y