Abstract
The northeastern depressed region of Bangladesh is highly susceptible to recurrent flash flooding due to excessive rainfall over these areas and in the upstream hilly regions. Two such severe pre-monsoon flash flood events occurred in 2016 and 2017. This research attempts to forecast both flash flood events using a coupled atmospheric-hydrological numerical weather prediction (NWP) model, namely the weather research and forecasting (WRF) model. The ARW (Advanced Research WRF) model is able to predict the rainfall over these areas with a lead time of 91 h. However, the discharge and water level are overestimated by the WRF-Hydro model. The model predicts a flash flood with a lag of approximately 12 h with respect to the highest amount of rainfall. The overall performances of the models were satisfactory. The two parameters, rainfall and subsequent discharge, which are required for delineation of lag time, were almost precisely simulated. Simulated values also had fewer errors, justified by the root mean squared error (RMSE) and mean absolute error values. The Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency criterion scores for model-derived discharge were close to 1.0, and the RMSE-observation standard deviation ratio scores were less than 0.5. This finding proves that the NWP models could be considered for forecasting flash flood events over selected areas of Bangladesh.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Source: SRTM Data; available at https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov.usa)
taken from https://gadm.org/download_country_v3.html; the experimental domain has been drawn with WRF-Hydro GIS pre-processing toolkit (downloaded from https://ral.ucar.edu/projects/wrf_hydro/pre-processing-tools)
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
FNL Data were downloaded from https://rda.ucar.edu/datasets/ds083.2/; GPM Data were downloaded from https://gpm.nasa.gov/data/directory; Rainfall Data, Discharge Data and Water Level Data were purchased from Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB); Rainfall Data were also collected from Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD). Apart from that—the datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Code availability
The codes for WRF-ARW model are available at http://www2.mmm.ucar.edu/wrf/users/download/wrf-regist_or_download.php; and codes for WRF-Hydro model are available at https://ral.ucar.edu/projects/wrf_hydro/model-code.
References
Abdulkareem JH, Pradhan B, Sulaiman WNA, Jamil NR (2019) Development of lag time and time of concentration for a tropical complex catchment under the influence of long-term land use/land cover (LULC) changes. Arab J Geosci 12:3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-019-4253-z
Adnan MSG, Dewan A, Zannat KE, Abdullah AYM (2019) The use of watershed geomorphic data in flash flood susceptibility zoning: a case study of the Karnaphuli and Sangu river basins of Bangladesh. Nat Hazards. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-019-03749-3
Akanda MAS (2019) Research Methodology a complete direction for learners. Akanda & Sons Publications, Dhaka
Alam A, Ahmed B, Sammonds P (2020) Flash flood susceptibility assessment using the parameters of drainage basin morphometry in SE Bangladesh. Quatern Int. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2020.04.047
Alamgir MS, Ahmed MR, Ahmed JU, Mostafiz RB (2020) Economic evaluation of production costs and returns of potato crop in Sylhet Region of Bangladesh. Nat Resour 11:96–111. https://doi.org/10.4236/nr.2020.113006
Amengual A, Romero R, Gomez M, Martin A, Alonso S (2007) A hydrometeorological modelling study of a flash-flood event over Catalonia, Spain. J Hydrometeorol 08:282–303. https://doi.org/10.1175/JHM577.1
Arnault J, Rummler T, Baur F, Lerch S, Wagner S, Fersch B, Zhang Z, Kerandi N, Keil C, Kunstmann H (2018) Precipitation sensitivity to the uncertainty of terrestrial water flow in WRF-Hydro: an ensemble analysis for central Europe. J Hydrometeorol 19:1007–1025. https://doi.org/10.1175/JHM-D-17-0042.1
Barcellos PCL, Cataldi M (2020) Flash flood and extreme rainfall forecast through one-way coupling of WRF-SMAP models: natural hazards in Rio de Janeiro State. Atmosphere 11:834. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11080834
Barnston AG (1992) Correspondence among the correlation, RMSE, and Hiedke forecast verification measures, refinement of the Hiedke score. Weather Forecast 7:699–709
Beck HE, Zimmermann NE, McVicar TR, Vergopolan N, Berg A, Wood EF (2018) Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution. Sci Data. https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2018.214
Berg LK, Gustafson WI Jr, Kassianov EI, Deng L (2013) Evaluation of a modified scheme for shallow convection: implementation of CuP and case studies. Mon Weather Rev 141:134–147. https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-12-00136.1
Bhowmik M, Das N (2014) Flood hazard mapping of the Lohar Nala Basin, West Tripura. Arch Appl Sci Res 6(3):142–153
Bhuiyan JAN, Jakobsen F, Khan AS, Bhuiyan S (2010) Flood characteristics of upper Meghna River Basin, Bangladesh. Int J Model Simul 30(4):428–433. https://doi.org/10.1080/02286203.2010.11442601
Brammer H (1990) Floods in Bangladesh: geographical background to the 1987 and 1988 floods. Geogr J 156(1):12–22. https://doi.org/10.2307/635431
BWDB (2014) Annual Flood Report 2014. Bangladesh Water Development Board. Flood Forecasting and Warning Center, Processing and Flood Forecasting Circle. http://www.ffwc.gov.bd/. Accessed 15 Jan 2019
BWDB (2015) Annual Flood Report 2015. Bangladesh Water Development Board. Flood Forecasting and Warning Center, Processing and Flood Forecasting Circle. http://www.ffwc.gov.bd/. Accessed 15 Jan 2019
BWDB (2016) Annual Flood Report 2016. Bangladesh Water Development Board. Flood Forecasting and Warning Center, Processing and Flood Forecasting Circle. http://www.ffwc.gov.bd/. Accessed 15 Jan 2019
BWDB (2017) Annual Flood Report 2017. Bangladesh Water Development Board. Flood Forecasting and Warning Center, Processing and Flood Forecasting Circle. http://www.ffwc.gov.bd/. Accessed 11 May 2019
BWDB (2018) Annual Flood Report 2018. Bangladesh Water Development Board. Flood Forecasting and Warning Center, Processing and Flood Forecasting Circle. http://www.ffwc.gov.bd/. Accessed 2 June 2020
Camera C, Bruggeman A, Zittis G, Sofokleous I, Arnault J (2020) Simulation of extreme rainfall and streamflow events in small Mediterranean watersheds with a one-way-coupled atmospheric–hydrologic modelling system. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 20:2791–2810. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-2791-2020
Chen Y, Li J, Wang H, Qin J, Dong L (2017) Large-watershed flood forecasting with high-resolution distributed hydrological model. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 21:735–749. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-735-2017
Chen X, Huang J, Han Z, Gao H, Liu M, Li Z, Liu X, Li Q, Qi H, Huang Y (2020) The importance of short lag-time in the runoff forecasting model based on long short-term memory. J Hydrol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.125359
Collier CG (2007) Flash flood forecasting: What are the limits of predictability? Q J R Meteorol Soc 133(622):3–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.29
Costache R (2014) Using GIS techniques for assessing lag time and concentration time in small river basins. Case study: Pecineaga river basin Romania. Geographia Technica 09(1):31–38
Das S, Ashrit R, Moncrieff MW (2006) Simulation of a Himalayan cloudburst event. J Earth Syst Sci 115(3):299–313. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02702044
Das MK, Chowdhury MAM, Das S (2015) Sensitivity study with physical parameterization schemes for simulation of mesoscale convective systems associated with squall events. Int J Earth Atmos Sci 2:20–36
Das MK, Islam AKMS, Khan MJU, Karmakar S (2017) Numerical simulation of flash-flood-producing heavy rainfall of 16 April 2016 in NE regions of Bangladesh. Vayu Mandal 43(2):97–108
Das MK, Islam AKMS, Karmakar S, Khan MJU, Mohammed K, Islam GMT, Bala SK (2020) Investigation of flash flood producing rainstorm in Northeast Bangladesh using WRF model. Water Flood Manag Water Secur under Chang Clim. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47786-8_11
Deshwara M (2016) Flash flood hits northeastern Bangladesh city of Sylhet. The Daily Star. https://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/flash-flood-hits-sylhet-1214293. Accessed 12 Jan 2019
Dolciné L, Andrieu H, Sempere-Torres D, Creutin D (2001) Flash flood forecasting with coupled precipitation model in mountainous mediterranean basin. j Hydrol Eng 6(1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)1084-0699(2001)6:1(1)
Doswell CA, Brooks HE, Maddox RA (1996) Flash flood forecasting: an ingredients-based methodology. Weather Forecast 11:560–581
Fairall CW, Bradley EF, Hare JE, Grachev AA, Edson JB (2003) Bulk parametrization of air–sea fluxes: updates and verification for the COARE algorithm. J Clim 16:571–591
Farr TG et al (2007) The shuttle radar topography mission. Rev Geophys 45:RG2004. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005RG000183
Folmar ND, Miller AC, Woodward DE (2007) History and development of the NRCS lag time equation. J Am Water Resour Assoc 43(3):829–838. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.2007.00066.x
Galanaki E, Lagouvardos K, Kotroni V, Giannaros T, Giannaros C (2020) Implementation of WRF-Hydro at two drainage basins in the region of Attica, Greece. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2020-26
Gericke OJ, Smithers JC (2014) Review of methods used to estimate catchment response time for the purpose of peak discharge estimation. Hydrol Sci J 59(11):1935–1971. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2013.866712
Givati A, Gochis D, Rummler T, Kunstmann H (2016) Comparing one-way and two-way coupled hydrometeorological forecasting systems for flood forecasting in the mediterranean region. Hydrology 3(2):19. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology3020019
Gochis DJ, Barlage M, Dugger A, FitzGerald K, Karsten, L, McAllister M, McCreight J, Mills J, Nasab AR, Read L, Sampson K, Yates D, Yu W (2018) The WRF-Hydro modeling system technical description (Version 5.0). NCAR Technical Note. 107 pages. https://ral.ucar.edu/sites/default/files/public/WRFHydroV5TechnicalDescription.pdf. Accessed 8 May 2019
Golmohammadi G, Prasher S, Madani A, Rudra R (2014) Evaluating three hydrological distributed watershed models: MIKE-SHE, APEX, SWAT. Hydrology 1:20–39. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology1010020
Granato GE (2012) Estimating basin lagtime and hydrograph-timing indexes used to characterize stormflows for runoff-quality analysis. U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2012–5110. http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2012/5110/. Accessed 22 Mar 2020
Haque S, Islam AKMS, Islam GT, Salehin M, Khan MJU (2017) Event based flash flood simulation at Sunamganj using HEC-HMS. In: 6th International Conference on Water & Flood Management (ICWFM-2017)
Hasan MA, Islam AKMS (2018) Evaluation of microphysics and cumulus schemes of WRF for forecasting of heavy monsoon rainfall over the southeastern hilly region of Bangladesh. Pure Appl Geophys. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-018-1876-z
Hasem MA (2016) First Steering Committee Meeting (SCM1): South Asia Flash Flood Guidance (SAsiaFFG) Project [PowerPoint slides]. Flood Forecasting & Warning Center. Bangladesh Water Development Board. https://community.wmo.int/south-asia-flash-flood-guidance-sasiaffg-system. Accessed 5 Apr 2019
Hofer T, Messerli B (2006) Floods in Bangladesh: history, dynamics and rethinking the role of the Himalayas. United Nations University Press, United Nations University, Tokyo
Hong S-Y, Lee J-W (2009) Assessment of the WRF model in reproducing a flash-flood heavy rainfall event over Korea. Atmos Res 93:818–831
Hong S-Y, Lim J-OJ (2006) The WRF single-moment 6-class microphysics scheme (WSM6). J Korean Meteorol Soc 42:129–151
Hong S-Y, Noah Y, Dudhia J (2006) A new vertical diffusion package with explicit treatment of entrainment processes. Mon Weather Rev 134:2318–2341
Huffman GJ, Bolvin DT, Braithwaite D, Hsu K, Joyce R, Kidd C, Nelkin EJ, Sorooshian S, Tan J, Xie P (2019) Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document (ATBD) Version 06 for the NASA Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) Integrated Multi-satellitE Retrievals for GPM (I-MERG). GPM Project, Greenbelt, MD, pp 38
Iacono MJ, Delamere JS, Mlawer EJ, Shephard MW, Clough SA, Collins WD (2008) Radiative forcing by long-lived greenhouse gases: calculations with the AER radiative transfer models. J Geophys Res 113:D13103. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD009944
Kamal ASMM, Shamsudduha M, Ahmed B, Hassan SMK, Islam MS, Kelman I, Fordham M (2018) Resilience to flash floods in wetland communities of northeastern Bangladesh. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct 31:478–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2018.06.011
Karmakar S, Das M (2020) On the simulation of lightning and flash flood producing thunderstorms in the Northeastern Bangladesh. J Eng Sci 11(1):133–146. https://doi.org/10.3329/jes.v11i1.49556
Kerandi N, Arnault J, Laux P, Wagner S, Kitheka J, Kunstmann H (2017) Joint atmospheric-terrestrial water balances for East Africa: a WRF-Hydro case study for the upper Tana River basin. Theoret Appl Climatol 131(3–4):1337–1355. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-017-2050-8
Kumar A, Houze RA, Rasmussen KL, Peters-Lidard C (2014) Simulation of a flash flooding storm at the steep edge of the Himalayas. J Hydrometeorol 15(1):212–228. https://doi.org/10.1175/jhm-d-12-0155.1
Litta AJ, Idicula SM, Mohanty UC (2011) A comparative study of convective parameterization schemes in WRF-NMM model. Int J Comput Appl 33(6):32–40
Liu Y, Liu J, Li C, Yu F, Wang W, Qiu Q (2020) Parameter sensitivity analysis of the WRF-hydro modeling system for streamflow simulation: a case study in semi-humid and semi-arid catchments of Northern China. Asia-Pac J Atmos Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13143-020-00205-2
Mahtab MH, Oharaand M, Rasmy M (2018) The impact of rainfall variations on flash flooding in haor areas In Bangladesh. Water Conserv Manag 2(2):06–10
Mair A, Fares A (2011) Comparison of rainfall interpolation methods in a mountainous region of a tropical island. J Hydrol Eng 16:371–383. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0000330
Miah MM (1988) Flood in Bangladesh: a hydromorphological study of the 1987 flood. Academic Publishers, Dhaka
Mohammed K, Islam AKMS, Khan MJU (2017) Flash flood forecasting in the northeast region of bangladesh using artificial neural network. In: 6th International Conference on Water & Flood Management (ICWFM-2017)
Mohapatra PK, Singh RD (2003) Flood management in India. Nat Hazards 28:131–143. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-0137-2_6
Moriasi DN, Arnold JG, Van Liew MW, Bingner RL, Harmel RD, Veith TL (2007) Model evaluation guidelines for systematic quantification of accuracy in watershed simulations. Trans ASABE 50(3):885–900
Nash JE, Sutcliffe JV (1970) River flow forecasting through conceptual models part I—a discussion of principles. J Hydrol 10(3):282–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(70)90255-6
Nasir T, Shamsuddoha M (2011) Tea productions, consumptions and exports: Bangladesh perspective. Int J Edu Res Technol 2(1):68–73
National Centers for Environmental Prediction/National Weather Service/NOAA/U.S. Department of Commerce (1997) NCEP FNL Operational Model Global Surface Analyses. Research Data Archive at the National Center for Atmospheric Research, Computational and Information Systems Laboratory, Boulder, CO. Accessed 3 May 2019. https://doi.org/10.5065/978H-D239
Nguyen HQ, Degener J, Kappas M (2015) Flash flood prediction by coupling KINEROS2 and HEC-RAS models for tropical regions of northern Vietnam. Hydrology 2:242–265. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology2040242
NIRAPAD (2017) Flash Flood Situation, April 19, 2017. Network for Information, Response and Preparedness Activities on Disaster. https://reliefweb.int/report/bangladesh/bangladesh-flash-flood-situation-april-19-2017. Accessed 12 Jan 2019
Niu G-Y et al (2011) The community Noah land surface model with multiparameterization options (Noah-MP): 1. Model description and evaluation with local-scale measurements. J Geophys Res 116:D12109. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD015139
Pal I, Singh S, Walia A (2013) Flood management in Assam, INDIA: a review of brahmaputra floods, 2012. Int J Sci Res Publ 3(10):1
Powers JG, Klemp JB, Skamarock WC et al (2017) The weather research and forecasting model overview, system efforts and future directions. BAMS. https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-15-00308.1
Rahman MA (1989) Is there a permanent solution for flood in Bangladesh? In: Ahmad M (ed) Flood in Bangladesh. Community Development Library, Dhaka, pp 132–140
Rasheed KBS (2008) Bangladesh: resource and environmental profile. AHDPH, Dhaka
Rashid HE (1977) Geography of Bangladesh. University Press Limited, Dhaka
Rashid MM, Yasmeen R (2017) Cold injury and flash flood damage in boro rice cultivation in Bangladesh: a review. Bangladesh Rice J 21(1):13–25
Rasmussen KL, Houze RA Jr (2012) A flash flooding storm at the steep edge of high terrain: disaster in the Himalayas. Bull Amer Meteor Soc 93:1713–1724. https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00236.1
Ryu Y, Lim Y-J, Ji H-S, Park H-H, Chang E-C, Kim B-J (2017) Applying a coupled hydrometeorological simulation system to flash flood forecasting over the Korean Peninsula. Asia-Pac J Atmos Sci 53(4):421–430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13143-017-0045-0
Sarker AA, Rashid AKMM (2013) Landslide and flashflood in Bangladesh. Disaster Risk Reduct. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-54252-0_8
Sazeed N, Islam MS (2019) Developing flash flood forecasting system for the haor areas of Bangladesh using coupled WRF-hydro model and TRMM-3B42 dataset. AGU Fall Meet Abstr 2019:H33K-2089
Senatore A, Mendicino G, Gochis DJ, Yu W, Yates DN, Kunstmann H (2015) Fully coupled atmosphere-hydrology simulations for the central Mediterranean: impact of enhanced hydrological parameterization for short and long time scales. J Adv Model Earth Syst 7:1693–1715. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015MS000510
Shaw R (1989) Living with floods in Bangladesh. Anthropol Today 5(1):11–13. https://doi.org/10.2307/3032853
Shivaprasad Sharma SV, Roy PS, Chakravarthi V, Srinivasarao G, Bhanumurthy V (2017) Extraction of detailed level flood hazard zones using multi-temporal historical satellite data-sets—a case study of Kopili River Basin, Assam, India. Geomat Nat Haz Risk 8(2):792–802. https://doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2016.1265014
Siddiquee I (2006) Sylhet growing as a modern urban centre. The Daily Star. http://archive.thedailystar.net/suppliments/2006/15thanniv/ourcities/ourcities24.html. Accessed 10 Jan 2019
Skamarock WC, Klemp JB, Dudhia J, Gill DO, Barker DM, Duda M, Huang X-Y, Wang W, Powers JG (2008) A description of the advanced research WRF version 3. NCAR technical note
Sorooshian S, Duan Q, Gupta VK (1993) Calibration of rainfall-runoff models: application of global optimization to the sacramento soil moisture accounting model. Water Resour Res 29(4):1185–1194. https://doi.org/10.1029/92wr02617
Sun M, Li Z, Yao C, Liu Z, Wang J, Hou A, Zhang K, Huo W, Liu M (2020) Evaluation of flood prediction capability of the WRF-hydro model based on multiple forcing scenarios. Water 12:874. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12030874
Uddin K, Matin MA, Meyer FJ (2019) Operational flood mapping using multi-temporal sentinel-1 SAR images: a case study from Bangladesh. Remote Sens 11(13):1581. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11131581
Varlas G, Anagnostou MN, Spyrou C, Papadopoulos A, Kalogiros J, Mentzafou A, Michaelides S, Baltas E, Karymbalis E, Katsafados P (2018) A multi-platform hydrometeorological analysis of the flash flood event of 15 november 2017 in Attica. Greece Remote Sens 11:45. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11010045
Verri G, Pinardi N, Gochis D, Tribbia J, Navarra A, Coppini G, Vukicevic T (2017) A meteo-hydrological modelling system for the reconstruction of river runoff: the case of the Ofanto river catchment. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 17:1741–1761. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-17-1741-2017
Webster PJ, Jian J, Hopson TM, Hoyos CD, Agudelo PA, Chang H-R, Subbiah AR (2010) Extended-range probabilistic forecasts of Ganges and Brahmaputra floods in Bangladesh. Bull Am Meteor Soc 91(11):1493–1514. https://doi.org/10.1175/2010bams2911.1
Wehbe Y, Temimi M, Weston M, Chaouch N, Branch O, Schwitalla T, Wulfmeyer V, Zhan X, Liu J, Al Mandous A (2019) Analysis of an extreme weather event in a hyper-arid region using WRF-Hydro coupling, station, and satellite data. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 19:1129–1149. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-19-1129-2019
Willmott CJ, Matsuura K (2006) On the use of dimensioned measures of error to evaluate the performance of spatial interpolators. Int J Geogr Inf Sci 20(1):89–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/13658810500286976
Yapo PO, Gupta HV, Sorooshian S (1996) Automatic calibration of conceptual rainfall-runoff models: sensitivity to calibration data. J Hydrol 181(1–4):23–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(95)02918-4
Zaman MQ (1993) Rivers of life: living with floods in Bangladesh. Asian Surv 33(10):985–996. https://doi.org/10.2307/2645097
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh; through National Science and Technology Fellowship for FY 2018-2019. The authors are indebted to The World Bank for creating opportunities and bearing all expenses to perform internship at the Department of Atmospheric Science, School Earth Sciences, Central University of Rajasthan, India. The authors are grateful to Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD) and Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) for providing all the necessary data and information. The authors appreciate the continuous help and assistance provided by Ms. Molly McAllister and Mr. Kevin Sampson (Research Applications Laboratory, Hydrometeorological Applications Program, University Corporation for Atmospheric Research) as well as Mr. Riley Conroy (Software Engineer, National Center for Atmospheric Research) in conducting this research.
Funding
Not applicable.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: J.-F. Miao.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Shuvo, S.D., Rashid, T., Panda, S.K. et al. Forecasting of pre-monsoon flash flood events in the northeastern Bangladesh using coupled hydrometeorological NWP modelling system. Meteorol Atmos Phys 133, 1603–1625 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00703-021-00831-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00703-021-00831-z