Accelerating ocean-based renewable energy educational opportunities to achieve a clean energy future

Chloe Constant; Matthew Kotarbinski; Jeremy Stefek; Rebecca Green; Elise DeGeorge; Ian Baring-Gould

doi:10.1088/2516-1083/ac1509

1. Introduction

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) predicted that the blue economy would more than double from a very conservative global economic value of $1.5 trillion in 2010 to over $3 trillion by 2030. They also predicted a large increase in jobs in the ocean economy, from around 31 million (full-time equivalent [FTE]) in 2010 to 40 million in 2030 under a sustainable scenario (OECD 2016).

Within that, the utilization of ocean-based renewable energy resources such as offshore wind, wave, and tidal is also growing at a rapid pace. In order to expedite progress and maximize benefits to the national, state, and local economies, these development actions will require a broad, diverse, and appropriately trained workforce. The ocean-based renewable energy workforce needs engineers and scientists to develop cost-effective technologies, as well as trade and maritime workers to eventually deploy the technologies at scale. For example, in the United States the Biden administration identified that tens of thousands of jobs will be created in order to support offshore wind renewable energy goals (White House 2021). Many key stakeholders from governments, to educational institutions, to private developers are taking action to understand the job skills and capability requirements and to develop educational and training programs to meet ocean-based renewable energy workforce needs; with most focused on offshore wind power, with gaining interest in marine energy.

However, in order to fully realize the great potential of these growing blue economy markets, a global view needs to be adopted that incorporates the education and skill needs of early-stage marine energy technologies and evolving offshore wind technologies together with more market-ready offshore renewable energy markets.

This article explores the workforce requirements of the growing ocean-based renewable energy industry by looking at the state of the industry and the associated job prospects and outlining the roles and skills that will be required for those jobs. It then explores the current state of education and training programs to meet those requirements in order to identify gaps and make recommendations for further workforce development activities and initiatives. It is based on desktop analysis as well direct feedback from stakeholders. In particular, feedback from Workforce Summit hosted by National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) together with the Business Network for Offshore wind in July 2020 as part of their International Partnering Forum was considered.

2. The current state of ocean-based renewable energy

Ocean-based renewable energy as discussed in this paper includes two sectors: marine renewable energy, which is energy derived from waves, tides, and currents, and energy derived from wind in the ocean environment (i.e. offshore wind). The states of these two sectors are described in the subsections below.

2.1. Marine energy

Marine energy is well poised for expanded contributions to the ocean-based renewable energy sector in upcoming years because of its unique value proposition to meet the energy needs of rapid growth in the emerging blue economy. To date, the harvest of energy from the movement of ocean waters has largely been accomplished with turbines in tidal channels, ocean currents, and rivers, as well as from the utilization of wave energy converters. In addition, energy can also be harvested from both salinity and temperature gradients in the ocean; the latter occurs in the form of ocean thermal energy conversion. A milestone for the marine energy industry was the establishment of the European Marine Energy Centre in Scotland in 2003. The Centre became the world's first marine energy test facility with a vision to develop a globally successful marine energy industry as part of a clean energy system (EMEC 2020).

Globally, the interest in marine energy technologies has been growing based on expanding mandates for clean energy generation and the categorical benefits provided by marine energy, such as proximity to coastal population centers, capabilities to support remote island communities, and the ability to provide power at sea. To date, Europe has demonstrated record-breaking production of tidal energy and steadily growing deployment of wave energy, with 27.7 MW and 11.8 MW cumulatively of tidal and wave energy installed in Europe since 2010 (Ocean Energy Europe 2020). The marine energy industry in Europe plans to deploy 100 GW of production capacity by 2050, which will meet 10% of electricity demand and will create an estimated 400 000 skilled jobs all along the supply chain. Beyond Europe, there is strong support for and testing of new tidal and wave energy devices in countries around the world, including Canada, China, Australia, India, Mexico, South Korea, the United States, and Singapore. In 2019, the Ocean Energy Systems Executive Committee commissioned a new study to provide the first global assessment of ocean energy job creation (2019). The study aims to deliver a validated methodology for job assessment in the ocean energy sector and build upon existing knowledge developed for other renewable energies and maritime sectors.

In terms of market size, the wave and tidal energy markets were valued at $212.7 million in 2016, growing at a compound annual growth rate of 42.5% over the forecast period (Grand View Research 2018). In another analysis, the global wave energy market was estimated to reach $141.07 million by 2026, growing at a compound annual growth rate of 20.8% from 2018 to 2026 (Syngene Research 2020).

2.2. Offshore wind energy

While offshore wind is more developed than marine energy, it still only supplies 0.3% of global power generation. However, with costs falling and technology advancements like floating wind opening up larger areas for offshore wind development, the International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that global offshore wind power capacity is set to increase 15-fold over the next 20 years to become a $1 trillion business (IEA Wind 2019). According to Bloomberg NEF, prices for new-build offshore wind declined by one-third between 2018 and 2019 alone. IEA Wind projects that the levelized cost of electricity produced by offshore wind will decline by almost 60% by 2040, spurring further development (IEA Wind 2019).

As of 2019, over 27 GW of installed capacity existed worldwide, three-quarters of which is located in Europe and about 20% of which was newly installed in 2019 (figure 1). There has also been huge growth in the offshore wind industry in terms of investment in recent years, from $8 billion in 2010 to $20 billion in 2018; and that number continues to increase. As of 2018, this represents 6% of all investment in renewable energy worldwide (IEA Wind 2019).

**Figure 1.** Global cumulative installed capacity (Musial *et al* 2020). Reproduced with permission from Musial *et al*. Copyright National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
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Moreover, advancements in floating offshore wind technologies will open up large geographic areas of previously inaccessible offshore wind resources. While fixed-bottom structures have been used in water depths up to 60 m, beyond that point, it may be more economical to use a floating foundation. It is estimated that approximately 80% of offshore wind resources are in waters greater than 60 m deep. To date, there are currently only 82 MW of installed floating wind turbines globally, but substantial investment and research is being done to accelerate the growth of these technologies.

In addition to further growth in established markets like Europe and China, offshore wind is also expected to grow significantly in new and nascent markets. For example, in 2019, Taiwan connected its first utility-scale offshore wind farm to the grid. In Japan, there is already over 65 MW of offshore wind (including 19 MW of floating wind), and the country is poised to hold its first commercial auction in 2020. The Global Wind Energy Council also identifies countries like Vietnam, India, Brazil, and Australia as potential growth markets for offshore wind (GWEC 2019).

Offshore wind capacity globally is estimated to reach 100 GW by 2025 based on developer-announced commercial operation dates.

2.3. The United States market for ocean-based renewable energy

In the United States, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is actively funding marine energy research and development efforts. In 2019, DOE formally launched a new R&D initiative called Powering the Blue Economy and published a report that explored opportunities for marine energy in a variety of distributed maritime markets (LiVecchi et al 2019). As part of this initiative, DOE has partnered with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Integrated Ocean Observing System to launch the Powering the Blue Economy: Ocean Observing Prize. This competition is challenging competitors to develop novel ways of integrating marine energy systems with ocean-observing platforms and technologies.

The offshore wind market in the United States is still nascent, with 42 MW of installed capacity including the newly installed 12 MW Coastal Virginia Offshore Wind pilot project; however, it is on the verge of significant growth.

Based on NREL assessments of market potential, this growth is supported by state-level procurement commitments that grew from roughly 19 GW in 2018 to 29 GW in 2019, with new procurement policies being introduced in five states in 2019 and early 2020 for offshore wind. Accordingly, the U.S. offshore wind pipeline grew from 25 824 MW in 2018 to 28 597 MW in 2019. It is estimated that the total technical resource potential for offshore wind in the United States is more than 2000 GW—approximately double the current installed U.S. electricity-generating capacity, while marine renewable energy technical resource potential (wave + tidal + ocean + river) is ∼210 GW or ∼1/5 the U.S. generating potential.

3. Expected ocean-based renewable energy job prospects

Marine energy and offshore wind represent growing job sectors in the blue economy. The blue economy has been represented by industries in seven major economic sectors: living resources (e.g. fishing, aquaculture, processing), marine transportation (shipping), shipbuilding, marine construction, offshore mineral extraction (primarily oil and gas), renewables (offshore wind), and coastal tourism and recreation. In the U.S. context as of 2016, these sectors accounted for 3.3 million employees and $304 billion in gross domestic product in the oceans and Great Lakes economies (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2016).

In the international context, Europe's blue economy maritime sectors employed 5.2 million people and generated almost 500 billion euros a year as of 2017 (European Commission 2017). The world's oceans support several industries that employ workers and increase economic activity within a country or region along their coasts with supply chains crossing inland. In the United States and Europe, the blue economy industry sector is dominated by coastal tourism, with other sectors (including renewables) playing a more minor but in many cases growing role (table 1). Global blue economy jobs are also significant in Asia, Southeast Asia, and Oceana (McIlgorm 2016, Juneja et al 2021). South America and Africa also have active blue economies, though with a more limited focus on the renewable energy sector currently.

Table 1. Jobs breakdown by blue economy industry sector.

	Region
Economic sector	United States	Europe
Living resources (fishing, aquaculture, processing)	3%	13%
Marine transportation (shipping)	14%	10%
Shipbuilding	5%	9%
Offshore mineral extraction (primarily oil and gas)	4%	10%
Coastal tourism and recreation	73%	55%
Marine construction	1%	n/a
Renewables (offshore wind)	n/a	3%
(Source)	NOAA (2016)	European Commission (2017)

The United States and Europe have both identified the blue economy as a potential job and economic growth opportunity. Offshore wind and marine energy development are a focus in both regions and will support additional jobs and economic activity as their market applications are developed. Some nations, specifically China, Japan, and Korea have active, although small, marine renewable energy industries. Pockets of further market development, primarily hosted through universities, exist around the globe. Specific jobs and workforce needs will be determined as markets develop, but generally ocean-based renewable energy jobs will require a highly skilled and diverse workforce to develop, manufacture, construct, and operate these technologies. Further, many of these applications will also share ocean-based skills.

A significant portion of the economies of the Asia-Pacific region are in ocean-based sectors with oceans being a core component for socio-economic functioning of some countries¹ . Employment (table 2) in the seven major economic sectors varies between countries in the Asia-Pacific region but employment in the blue economy is significant for these developed, developing, and least developed countries. A subset of the Asia-Pacific counties with a large share of the blue economy (in gross domestic product) includes Indonesia, China, Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand (1), Malaysia, India, and Australia with an estimated employment of 5.3 million, 35.9 million, 3.2 million, 3 million, 2.95 million, 4 million, 16 million, and 0.4 million, respectively (Juneja et al 2021). Most people in the Asia-Pacific region are employed in fishing and aquaculture, shipping and marine tourism and transport followed marine tourism, fish processing, port activities, marine equipment, shipbuilding, and offshore oil and gas (Juneja et al 2021).

Table 2. Full-time jobs supported from offshore wind deployment in U.S. coastal regions by 2030.

Region	Installed capacity (MW)	Project development and on-site labor (FTE)	Supply chain (FTE)	O&M on-site labor (FTE)	FTE/MW	Source
Mid-Atlantic	7830	4250	9550	680	1.8	Tegen et al (2015)
Southeast	4030	4150	7480	330	2.9	Tegen et al (2015)
Great Lakes	2000	700	1340	170	1.1	Tegen et al (2015)
Gulf of Mexico	4000	4800	6580	270	2.9	Tegen et al (2015)
Hawaii	400	490	350	14	2.1	Jimenez et al (2016a)
California	3000	2800	14 550	130	5.8	Speer et al (2016)
Oregon	550	470	1420	22	3.5	Jimenez et al (2016b)

In areas that have seen rapid development of ocean-based renewable energy technologies, policy has played a critical role from a technology development (research investment) or technology deployment (permitting, financial incentives, or market access) perspective. This demonstrates the critical role of policy and its impact on workforce needs. Because policy will drive market development, it will similarly drive workforce needs. Additionally, nonmarket-focused policy, such as domestic content requirements, ocean development restrictions, or other related policy, may also have outsized impacts on workforce needs.

3.1. Marine energy

Tidal, wave, and other ocean energy accounts for approximately 1100 jobs worldwide (International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) 2019). Most of these jobs are in the United Kingdom, according to a 2012 report that identified the ocean energy sector as employing 800 permanent jobs (European Commission 2012). This blue economy growth study estimated 10 000 FTE jobs by 2020 and 20 000 by 2035 for marine energy technologies while stating these numbers were likely optimistic. U.S. employment associated with wave and tidal is limited to research institutions and a few private developers engaged with R&D of the technology. While there are currently few jobs worldwide, the development of utility-scale marine energy technologies remains a priority to grow blue jobs and the economy.

Several studies have estimated the number of jobs and economic activity associated with various deployment scenarios. For example, deploying 13 GW of wave energy converters by 2045 off the coast of Oregon is estimated to support a total of 66 000 FTE ocean-energy-related jobs during construction and operation phases. Most of the worker hours were focused on manufacturing and supply chain (86%), with smaller numbers of hours focused on project development, on-site installation, and operations (National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) 2015). This estimation assumes a middle level of domestic content, increasing deployment levels to 2045, and a reduction in technology costs. An economic impact study of tidal energy in the United Kingdom asserted that deploying 100 MW of capacity by 2020 would support 590 direct and 2500 indirect FTE jobs nationally (Offshore Renewable Energy Catapult 2014). These estimates suggest a range of 5–6 indirect jobs (FTEs) per MW of installed future capacity to support direct ocean-related jobs, not including induced-impacts-related jobs² . In addition, developing marine energy in Southeast Asia could lead to job creation, a regional supply chain reducing technology costs, and support for rural and island communities (Quirapas and Taeihagh 2021).

3.2. Offshore wind

Land-based and offshore wind energy employ 1.16 million people worldwide (IRENA 2019). While most existing wind energy deployment is related to land-based installations, offshore wind is a growing industry that is often more labor-intensive because of the skills and additional expertise needed to build at sea (IRENA 2018). In the United Kingdom, offshore wind power employment accounted for 20 570 jobs (Renewable Energy Association 2016), while in Germany offshore wind employed 27 100 people in 2016 (BMWi 2018). China's wind-related employment is 518 000 jobs which supports 26 GW of installed wind energy, of which 1.3 GW is offshore wind (IRENA 2020). The offshore wind industry is more developed in Europe, and employment will likely continue to grow there but at a slower rate than the United States and other regions where the offshore wind industry is emerging as a new blue economy opportunity.

Wind energy employs 116 800 workers across the United States (DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy 2021). Most of these jobs are associated with land-based wind; however, as the offshore wind industry is emerging in the United States, the overall number of jobs and offshore wind's share is likely to grow. In a national assessment of offshore wind deployment, the DOE Wind Vision (2015) modeled a scenario for 86 GW of offshore wind to be deployed by 2050. This identified the need for approximately 50 000 FTEs to support development and construction, with an additional 50 000 FTEs for manufacturing- and supply-chain-related jobs. These jobs will likely be spread along the coasts of the United States, with specific focuses in defined regions. Table 2 summarizes offshore wind jobs estimates from four different, region-specific reports. Job estimates cannot be directly compared because each report has unique assumptions. However, the FTE/MW are included as an indication of workforce requirements by geography.

3.3. Connections to other energy and ocean industries

3.3.1. Ocean applications

Blue economy applications are innovative markets to increase jobs and economic growth in ocean-related industries. Because of the diverse jobs and skills associated with each unique blue economy application, employment estimates are difficult to obtain across all of them. Each are emerging applications with a niche market and the potential to support highly skilled employment. Employment associated with these ocean-based applications may be the strongest driver for job and economic growth estimated by OECD, which predicted that the blue economy would more than double from a very conservative $1.5 trillion in 2010 to over $3 trillion in global economic value by 2030 (OECD 2016). They also predicted that jobs in the ocean economy could grow from around 31 million (FTE) in 2010 to 40 million in 2030 under a sustainable scenario. Although not specific to ocean-based renewable energy, these studies indicate an increased focus on blue economy jobs, which will provide both a pool of potential workforces with related skills and competition for the workers needed to further develop the offshore renewable energy market.

3.3.2. Oil and gas

According to IEA, about 40% of the lifecycle costs of an offshore wind project overlap with the offshore oil and gas sector. Stephanie McClellan, director of the Special Initiative on Offshore Wind at the University of Delaware said, 'it is the same industry, just using a different fuel' (Magill 2019).

Oil and gas companies are now heavily involved in the development of offshore wind globally. Many leading European oil and gas companies like Shell and Equinor are heavily involved in offshore wind, and Ørsted, the world's largest offshore wind developer with an active pipeline of more than 8 GW, divested its oil and gas business to focus on renewable energy.

In the United States, about 30% of the leases auctioned by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for offshore wind development are tied to the oil industry (Equinor and Shell), according to BloombergNEF data. However, despite offshore oil platforms being built in the United States for decades, the U.S. oil and gas industry has been slower to make the connection to offshore wind. Exxon Mobil is, so far, the first U.S. oil company to express an interest through its involvement in research in the potential for floating wind turbines to be used in offshore oil production.

The technologies and skills that these industries have in common mean that the offshore wind industry can draw on talent from the established oil and gas industry. In 2016, the offshore oil and gas industry in the United States supported 315 000 jobs, 70% of which are located in Gulf Coast states (BOEM 2016). Many of the employment opportunities listed include engineers, welders, and electricians, as well as employment at port facilities and fabrication facilities. With the expected growth in offshore wind jobs, many of the existing skillsets in offshore oil and gas could transition to offshore wind.

In addition, supply and service companies previously focused on oil and gas are now looking to offshore wind as an opportunity for diversification.

4. Key skills and capability requirements in the sector

Ocean-based renewable energy developments are complex projects that require an extensive and varied workforce to support them through their lifetimes from initial R&D; design and manufacturing of components; construction and installation; operation and maintenance (O&M); and, eventually, decommissioning. Although technologies and applications vary significantly across wind and marine renewable energy, many of the roles are similar and can be leveraged across the full sector. Larger differences are found when considering the nascency of the marine renewable energy field as compared to offshore wind, which is significantly further along, particularly when considering global impact.

The ocean-based renewable energy market can be broken into five general categories: technology development, product manufacturing, project development, O&M, and finance, performance optimization, and logistics.

Technology Development. This category focuses on the design and development of new or improved technical solutions across a range of technologies and market sectors. It is driven by large investments in R&D, research infrastructure investment, strong academic institutions, and availability of highly educated scientists and engineers.

Product Manufacturing. Although clearly driven by the technology in question, this category focuses on the manufacturing of primary equipment and components. Although many components of emerging marine renewable energy technologies can be produced almost anywhere, many of the more advanced components, including power electronics, generators, advanced composite structures, and precision parts must be made in advanced manufacturing facilities. Driven by modern infrastructure, a highly educated technical workforce with active worker training programs is needed to support significant elements of the supply chain while less skilled technical workers will continue to be required.

Project Development, Finance, and Implementation. The development of new marine energy projects requires a great deal of science, engineering, and financial rigor. Requirements include detailed understanding of resources assessment, environmental impact assessment, permitting, social science, business and finance, and technical design. This development also requires national and regional knowledge and siting experience from varied backgrounds, including environmental, social, energy, and governmental areas. These jobs will require some amount of location specific knowledge, such as understanding of local permitting requirements, but the need for these jobs will be driven by project development cycles; a highly skilled and mobile workforce is likely to be needed unless there is a large enough local market to support long term employment in a local region.

Operation and Maintenance. Following the development of a specific project, a focus on locally available expertise to supply ongoing O&M will be required. Although some O&M services can be supplied by external parties, most require technical and engineering staffs with technology and industry-specific training. This will mainly require skilled technical workers with both general prerequisite training (largely defined by industry and national certifications), as well as technology-specific training typically provided by the original equipment manufacturer.

Finance, Performance Optimization and Logistics, Throughout the lifetime of a project or technology, roles focused on optimizing the financing, development, and operations are crucial to ensure that ocean-based renewable energy is developed efficiently and is able to compete with other industries. This will require workers both with specific business acumen and strong technical understanding, coupled with socio-cultural skills in a global context.

Regardless of the technology, development of national capabilities in each of these sectors will be driven by market need and size. Although smaller markets often will not support high-volume manufacturing, in some cases, strategic investments can be made to focus on select technology innovation for export purposes. In all cases, if technology is going to be deployed either nationally or regionally, efforts will need to be made to develop a local workforce that can support long-term O&M.

Within a national or regional context, a concerted effort should be undertaken to determine which of the five market categories should be considered for workforce investment. For example, most new or small markets may want to focus training investments in the O&M sector and segments of project development, leaving more technology specific development expertise to be imported. However, existing appropriate local industries could be considered to supply some portions. A larger nation or one with an expected larger market could look to expand efforts to capture more of the development and manufacturing work, potentially also engaging in local technology development as the markets develop. Once there is a general understanding of which market categories are likely to be needed and over what timeline, workforce development programs can be launched to address these needs.

4.1. Roles

Just as workforce requirements can be broken down by the five stages previously outlined, they also vary by the types of occupations involved, as shown in figure 2. The types of roles have therefore been categorized into five areas that each share general workforce characteristics and requirements: skilled trade roles, engineering roles, general professional roles, science roles, and maritime roles.

**Figure 2.** Ocean-based renewable energy skill and education requirements by role type (NREL analysis). Reproduced with permission. Copyright National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
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4.1.1. Skilled trade roles

There are a great number of skilled trades roles required to support the manufacturing of components as well as the construction and installation of these projects and port infrastructure. For example, welders, iron and steel workers, and machine setters and operators are critical for manufacturing activities as well as construction and installation. According to the 'Workforce Opportunity of Offshore Wind in New York' report commissioned by the New York State Energy and Research Development Authority, trade workers make up approximately 86% of construction and installation roles and 80% of O&M roles during the lifetime of a project.

Existing offshore industries have a skilled trade workforce to support ocean-based renewable energy by transferring their skills to a new industry. A study on offshore wind in the Gulf of Mexico found that an existing regional labor force and highly capable manufacturing facilities that produced large offshore foundation structures for the oil and gas industry could fabricate jackets, monopiles, and towers for the offshore wind industry (Bureau of Ocean Energy Management 2020). Manufacturing jacket substructures for a 600 MW project in the Gulf of Mexico in 2030 could support approximately 1800 FTE jobs. As a current example, the fixed-bottom jacket substructures for the U.S. Block Island Wind Farm were manufactured in the Gulf of Mexico and transported to the East Coast. Another example is a shipbuilding and manufacturing company based in Portland, Oregon, that produced wave energy converters for the U.S. market including the WET-NZ device, Ocean Power Technologies prototype, a Finivara device, and Ocean Energy's wave energy conversion device while also supporting the floating wind turbine platform for Principle Power (Vigor Website 2020).

Although there is significant crossover between these trade roles and other industries beyond ocean-based renewable energy, there is a preference in the industry for some experience specific to the technology. According to an NREL assessment of the wind energy workforce in the United States, 77% of hiring managers indicated a preference that trade workers have prior experience in wind (2015).

This crossover paired with a preference for specific experience creates an interesting dynamic with potential workforce transitions from similar marine fields, such as offshore construction, into the ocean-based renewable energy sector, as well as skilled trade workers with experience in land-based renewable energy moving to support similar industries offshore. In relation to skilled trades, the identification of worker standards and certifications will help ensure that workers from adjoining industries have the skills they need to support an expanded marine energy industry.

Beyond a preference for technology experience, an additional challenge will be ensuring sufficient numbers of qualified workers are available at the appropriate time and place. For example, during the construction of the 30 MW Block Island Wind Farm project in Massachusetts, a lack of skilled welders locally meant they had to be brought in from neighboring states. Given that Massachusetts is now targeting 3200 MW by 2035, in addition to commitments made by neighboring states, it becomes even more crucial that qualified workers are available to meet these targets. Of course, marine energy projects are not likely to scale to the level of an offshore wind project in the near future, so this type of bottleneck may not occur in the marine renewable energy sector.

By understanding when and where projects are being developed, education and training providers such as community colleges, union training courses, and other industry training programs can be coordinated to ensure that an appropriately sized trained workforce is available without duplicating efforts or flooding the market with a trained workforce when or where it is not required. However, this is a delicate balance that will require expanded coordination and collaboration across regions—likely including states in the United States or specific nations in Europe—to make sure that the number of employees match the requirements of the marine renewable energy industry or that there is enough flexibility between similar industries to support worker retention. Being able to co-locate training programs, manufacturing facilities, construction bases, and other industries that use similar skills will ease the variability in employment requirements and should be taken into consideration when planning developments.

4.1.2. Engineering roles

Engineering roles have been the backbone of the offshore energy industry from the very start, through development, design, testing, and optimization of technologies. For specific projects, engineers are needed throughout the lifetime of the project, including project design and infrastructure; construction and installation; implementation of systems for quality control and health and safety; monitoring of those systems; and production, development, and execution of maintenance plans.

These roles require a high level of education and specific technology experience; after trade workers, workers in these roles make up the highest proportion of the workforce.

Although engineering technician roles may require an associate degree, the majority of engineering roles require a master's degree in a specific engineering subfield, such as electrical or mechanical. In addition, according to NREL's wind workforce study, for a role like power systems engineer, 97% of hiring managers prefer experience in wind (2015).

These requirements obviously have implications for availability of qualified workers for nascent industries like offshore wind (in the United States) and marine energy. It is quite difficult to find marine renewable energy engineering expertise, so any exposure to the field represented on a resume is often highly valued. It is likely that, to meet this requirement for near-term development, industry will need to lean on experience from adjacent industries such as offshore oil and gas and land-based wind.

4.1.3. General professional roles

Throughout the lifetime of offshore wind energy projects, professional specialists are a critical element of the workforce. For example, financial analysts, lawyers, insurance experts, and public relations specialists support projects mostly during the development and construction stages.

These roles are typically not the focus of existing workforce assessments and need analysis. It is widely accepted that the skills required for these professional roles are, to a large extent, transferable between industries. While that is true in relation to specific skills and particularly professional certifications (for example, Juris Doctor or Certified Professional Accountant), it does not mean that direct ocean-based renewable energy experience is not needed. To the contrary, as mentioned previously, many of these roles despite being more generalized still require extensive knowledge of and experience with the unique challenges associated with ocean-based renewable energy. This prior knowledge is particularly important when it comes to regulatory and environmental issues and mitigation.

Although this requirement for more specific knowledge and experience can be addressed partially with supplemental education, currently the most common way to attain this is through professional experience, either directly in ocean-based renewable energy or in adjacent fields such as land-based renewable energy or offshore oil and gas. Despite the potential overlap in relevant experience from other industries, given the nascent state of marine energy and that offshore wind energy in the United States and other international markets is still burgeoning, there is a potential gap in the workforce and experience required to fill these roles.

The universities providing degree programs that are required for many of these roles are starting to incorporate programs and courses in renewable energy, and potentially ocean-based renewable energy more specifically depending on location, to supplement these specializations.

For example, DOE's Collegiate Wind Competition includes a project development contest that invites teams to develop a site plan and cost-of-energy analysis, generating interest from outside engineering and science programs and exposing students (and their instructors) to the vast array of development challenges and barriers.

4.1.4. Science roles

Scientists are particularly active as new markets develop as well as during the early development and construction phases of specific projects. For example, geoscientists, oceanographers, and atmospheric scientists are required to determine appropriate locations to deploy technologies by analyzing site conditions such as weather, currents, and atmospheric, ocean, and seabed conditions. In addition, zoologists, marine biologists, and wildlife surveyors must analyze potential ecosystem impacts, provide input to help develop mitigation strategies for potential negative impacts, and monitor conditions during operations to ensure that projects are not violating environmental regulations. These roles typically require an advanced degree (master's or PhD) and relevant offshore experience.

Given the current status of the offshore wind energy in the United States (and for marine technologies globally) these roles are a key requirement and potentially a bottleneck in growing the industry at pace. Exposure to the vast array of science-based opportunities in this sector and promotion of internship opportunities could allow for more scientists graduating with technology-specific experience. For example, an oceanographer who understands the opportunities and challenges of a wave-powered underwater autonomous vehicle will be able to bolster the blue economy more quickly. An atmospheric scientist who understands wind turbine wakes and arrays would also be better positioned to optimize the power output of an offshore wind power plant.

4.1.5. Maritime roles

Maritime roles are related to the transport of people and materials between the shore and ocean-based renewable energy projects, and include vessel operations such as skippers, sailors, ship engineers, and marine oilers. The maritime roles also go beyond vessel operations to include longshoremen and port service workers. In addition, specific maritime business roles are crucial to consider, including marine insurance, port and terminal management, and cargo chartering and brokerage.

It is important to understand the wide variety of vessels used in the installation and operations of offshore energy projects and the corresponding variety of skills and experience levels required. More general vessels such as guard boats, barges, and tugboats may not necessarily require specific training and skills related to a particular technology. However, there are a large number of vessels and roles where specific experience is imperative, for example, cable-laying vessels or jack-up barges. Even for crew transfer vessels, specific training is required to transfer staff and materials to the marine energy devices.

In addition, although many marine roles are required throughout a project's operational lifetime, there is a short-term spike in demand during the construction phase that makes it even more challenging to ensure workers are available, especially if multiple projects are developed simultaneously. As has been observed in the European market, there is the opportunity for workers from other maritime industries, such as commercial fishing, to also work in offshore energy; however, this requires that appropriate training is available and there is an incentive for these types of workers to make the transition. For marine renewable energy, maritime roles would vary significantly from blue economy applications to utility-scale applications, with both potential marine renewable energy pathways aligning well with the skills that the maritime industry has to offer, albeit in different ways.

5. Education and training efforts

As of 2020, more than 110 postsecondary academic institutions in the United States have been identified by NREL that support workforce development in ocean-based renewable energy, including universities, community colleges, maritime academies, and other programs, such as industry-sponsored efforts. These are shown geographically and by institution type in figure 3. The number of these programs continues to increase and existing programs continue to expand and, as they do, there is a great deal of variation regarding how developed these programs are. For example, some academic offerings include limited curricula, such as introductory, nontechnical courses, whereas other programs will offer academic concentrations with a focus on ocean-specific renewable energies, or even specific technical training programs for offshore wind. In any case, it is expected that there are sufficient academic institutions to meet workforce development requirements in the United States.

**Figure 3.** U.S. institutions with programs focused on offshore wind and/or marine energy (NREL analysis).
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5.1. Offshore wind education and training efforts

Given that offshore wind is the more developed technology of those categorized within the ocean-based renewable energy industry, it is driving workforce studies and skill assessments, ultimately leading to the creation of education and workforce programs to advance the ocean-based energy sector as a whole.

Of the 110+ postsecondary and workforce development programs identified by NREL, over 75% are driven entirely by the offshore wind industry; these programs offer curricula solely focused on developing offshore-wind-specific skills in varying capacity. Despite a majority of these postsecondary and workforce development programs having created educational programs with a focus on one particular sector within the blue economy, roughly 15% offer curricula spanning more than one of the ocean-based renewable energy sectors. This indicates that there are overlaps in required education and skills training between the offshore wind and marine energy sectors.

Additionally, there are seven recognized educational institutions and training programs that offer only marine energy curricula. Further, DOE is supporting efforts focused on marine energy, such as the Marine Energy Collegiate Competition and the Marine and Hydrokinetic Graduate Student Research Program. Fifteen teams competed in the first Marine Energy Collegiate Competition in 2020, which challenged students to design and develop business plans for next-generation marine energy devices by optimizing technology and reducing costs.

5.2. Regional and market-specific influence on training and education

Although there is a large network of academic programs that have curricula focused on the emerging ocean-based renewable energy industry, access to such programs may present a challenge in some regions. Many of these workforce development programs—which depend on the type of sector that these programs are supporting—can become very geographically specific, consequently becoming clustered in certain areas. For example, many of the more developed programs, specifically those with a focus in offshore wind in the United States, are currently located in the northeast where the offshore wind pipeline is more developed, as opposed to the south or west coasts.

For example, states like Massachusetts and New York have been actively pursuing offshore wind and leading the development of offshore wind workforce programs and establishing the necessary infrastructure through state-sponsored programs and industry partnerships. Early trends and observations indicate that states with existing state-sponsored workforce development initiatives, educational institutions, and supply chain and port infrastructure have fewer deployment barriers for growing blue economy markets—this is particularly evident with New York and Massachusetts. However, the incentive for each state to individually pursue supply chain and workforce development poses a potential risk that the market becomes oversaturated with workers in certain regions. A deep understanding of workforce needs over time and close coordination within regions can help alleviate this risk.

On the other hand, institutions and programs that offer curricula related to marine energy are not as clustered or geographically specific as with offshore wind workforce programs. Of the 25 programs identified offering marine energy curricula, their locations are not as geographically concentrated as with offshore wind. In addition to programs clustered in the Northeast, programs are also located in places such as Michigan, Wisconsin, Hawaii, and Oregon. It can be hypothesized that this sector will follow a pattern similar to offshore wind, as educational and training programs physically closest to the coasts are likely to be the ones that become the most relevant. Programs can also expect to mature at the same rate as the technological developments of wave and tidal in the marine energy sector. Oregon has one of the best marine energy resources in the United States, and PacWave at Oregon State University is a DOE-funded facility that can test wave energy technologies. This facility will accommodate up to 20 wave energy converters, thereby allowing current technology developers to test innovative technologies while inspiring and educating the future workforce.

One example of successful clustering activities is being performed as part of the U.S. DOE Water Power technology Office's Water STEM project, which includes development of Clean Energy Talent Development Hubs (CETDH) designed to address various talent development challenges and foster a thriving clean energy workforce, using water power as a test case. Due to the high level of marine energy activity in the Pacific Northwest as discussed above, the first pilot CETDH has been established in this region. It serves as a virtual space for industry and education to convene and collaborate in partnership with regional industry, education, research, workforce development and other thought leaders to build awareness of renewable water power technologies, system functions and dynamics, values, benefits, impacts, solutions and career pathways towards to goal of building local capacity to join the water power workforce. If this CETDH pilot is proven successful, other possible hub locations and broader energy industry engagements is expected to be explored.

5.3. Education and training standardization

As the United States begins to develop its ocean-based renewable energy sector, institutions have been developing their own programs, certificates, and standards. However, as the workforce network establishes and stabilizes, there needs to be a certain level of cooperation to ensure that these programs are meeting the needs of the industry, and particularly for certificate programs, have a recognized standard to give confidence to employers seeking to hire a trained workforce. There has been some concern that, as these various workforce development institutions create their own standards for certified graduates, technicians, and mariners, there may be compatibility issues with what these programs are offering, when compared to the prerequisites expected from the ocean-based renewable energy industry.

One example of cooperation in developing a training program is the Offshore Wind Technician certificate offered by Adult Continuing Education—Martha's Vineyard (ACE MV) and Bristol Community College and funded by Vineyard Wind and the Massachusetts Clean Energy Center. This two-year program is aimed at teaching students the skills required to support the O&M of offshore wind power plants.

5.4. Safety training standards

Standards become even more crucial when considering training from a safety perspective. Global Wind Organisation (GWO) standards set certain guidelines for training that are then incorporated into curricula from certified training providers (2018).

Despite GWO standards being the most widely adopted within the global offshore market, currently, there is no official industry training standard. However, this can also cause challenges when trying to incorporate GWO standards into existing national standards and regulations as well as significant efforts to develop these programs where they are lacking, like in the U.S. In response, GWO has established a North American committee with representatives from owner/operators and turbine manufactures to develop these programs in a way that complements existing local resources (2020). A number of educational institutions are now also partnering with industry to establish courses that meet GWO standards, for example, Vineyard Wind is working with Massachusetts Clean Energy Council to establish GWO training at the Massachusetts Maritime Academy and ACE MV together with Bristol Community College (Dunlop 2019).

In addition, private education programs are being developed, for instance, BEI Maritime is constructing a maritime training center; expected to be complete in 2021, the $25 million facility will feature a 1.4 million-gallon indoor pool that will train offshore wind crews to GWO standards (Glass 2019).

5.5. Primary and secondary education efforts

Based on NREL's cataloguing of existing programs, it appears that, currently, curricula and programs focused on the blue economy at the primary and secondary level are scarce and largely created as independent initiatives rather than standardized or coordinated efforts. However, despite high demands on often-limited school budgets, efforts to introduce children to the blue economy early on will likely create interest that may carry through to their future education and career decisions.

Of the few programs that exist in the United States, WinWind Rhode Island is a good example because they offer a high school certificate program for students who are interested in working in the offshore wind industry. This program is a result of a state-led initiative and partnership of Rhode Island's Department of Labor and Training with North Kingstown Chamber of Commerce. In this program, students take courses on specific topics relevant to the offshore wind industry, including welding, electrical systems, and marine safety (Anzilotti 2018). WinWind Rhode Island is designed so that students who complete the program can be credited up to nine college credits, creating a pathway into an industry unknown to many current students. This program was also designed to address an identified near-term gap in skilled technical workers caused by an aging workforce (Rhode Island Department of Labor & Training 2019). This program is only intended for Rhode Island, and although it is currently in a select handful of schools, there are plans to raise funding to expand the program to more high schools within the state.

Other examples of existing programs that can be expanded to include the blue economy are DOE's Wind For Schools program, the KidWind Challenge program and Public Broadcasting Service wind energy lesson plans, and the National Energy Education Development Project K-12 wind curriculum.

5.6. Upskilling efforts

There is a great deal of crossover in the skills required in the blue economy and other adjacent industries, such as oil and gas, construction and building, and traditional maritime, to name a few. However, additional training is often required to adapt these relevant skills to specific blue economy activities. Certificate programs focused on upskilling workers will help attract workers from other adjacent industries and professions and ensure they have the skills and knowledge required by the blue economy.

Traditionally, workforce development training and educational efforts have been designed with the intention of awarding a degree upon completion; however, nontraditional educational platforms are being developed that allow for professionals to pivot careers, without the two- or four-year commitment of a traditional degree program.

There are several existing upskilling programs focused on professional trades. For example, the University of Delaware offers the Offshore Wind Skills Academy program, which partners with the Danish Energy and Climate Academy (UD Earth, Ocean & Environment 2018). The program features a three-day workshop taught by industry experts from North America and Europe that spans all topics important to project development. For example, the program covers offshore wind auctions, power purchase agreements, grid interconnection, and understanding various impacts on levelized cost of energy. At the end of the workshop, a certificate is issued.

Other similar upskilling programs include Vermont Tech's online wind energy professional course and the University of Massachusetts at Amherst's Clean Energy Extension Program at the Wind Energy Center, which will be offering an offshore wind professional certificate program. Additional upskilling efforts planned for the future include a recently announced joint partnership between academia and industry with Ørsted having reached a memorandum of understanding with Stockton University and Rutgers University to collaborate on the creation of a professional and technical development program.

Although upskilling efforts are not yet required for marine energy, it is an approach that could be easily expanded or duplicated when required.

6. Ocean-based renewable energy workforce development gaps

Given the current state of ocean-based renewable energy and the potential growth within this sector, there are several gaps in the current workforce that should be considered by governments, organizations, or institutions that may play a role in developing the workforce for the blue economy. These gaps include the following but will need to be tailored to the technology being considered and the type of market categories described in section 4, key skills, and capability requirements in the sector being undertaken:

Expanded identification and articulation of near-term needs for specific workers and long-term understanding of workforce needs. As already noted in section 4, specific workers, primarily in skilled trades (e.g. welders) and some professional positions (e.g. marine sciences and engineers with specific renewable energy-focused skills) have been identified as near-term personnel gaps for the offshore wind industry. In marine renewable energy technologies, workers are needed with more marine energy-focused advanced degrees that will be needed to lower the costs of current technology options.
Better understanding of workforce needs across regions, industries, and over time Existing studies (like the Massachusetts Offshore Wind Workforce Assessment or The Workforce Opportunity of Offshore Wind in New York) are typically state- or region-specific and do not generally consider more detailed assessments including sourcing workers, worker mobility, and the phased development of offshore wind and other expected marine energy projects. For example, understanding what negative externalities might occur as a result of sourcing workers from other existing industries such as fisheries and oil and gas is generally less known. Given the time and resources to develop new educational programs and the great diversity of worker needs and skill level, justification for the development of specific programs will be critical for their successful implementation.
A lack of understanding of educational programs and advancement pathways. Although this report highlights some analysis of existing and planned programs, the industry and interested workers require a comprehensive and up-to-date assessment of existing programs, activities, and curricula related to supporting worker education and training. This can then support a full systems approach for educational pathways, starting with students in primary and secondary schools and leading through community college, bachelor's programs, and postgraduate education, with appropriate offramps into industry and onramps for returning students.
Minimal sector wide standardization and skill categorization. Based on the assessment of existing programs, it was identified that educational institutions have largely been developing their own proprietary standards through their renewable energy certificate programs. As the ocean-based workforce network establishes and stabilizes, there needs to be a collective effort moving forward to at least align or coordinate different standards for similar occupations, particularly in regard to safety training. National and international-level coordination among the different market sectors will be important to guarantee that a coordinated educational infrastructure is implemented, reducing programmatic overlap and the lead time to implement programs while ensuring industry participation and support.
Lack of diversity in the ocean-based renewable energy workforce. It can already been seen in more mature offshore wind markets in Europe that there is a lack of diversity in the industry. A recent UK report on the offshore wind industry highlighted that only around 5% of senior engineering roles are held by women (Supergen 2020). As the ocean-based renewable energy industry continues to develop, it will be important that all aspects of workforce development include specific efforts to expand the inclusion of women, minorities, and other underserved populations.
Lack of resources and limited educator training programs to support development of educational programs. Through the assessment of existing programs and discussion with education stakeholders, it was identified that resources to help develop programs, either conceptually or physically, will greatly ease and speed up the development process. Further, once established, baseline funding can mitigate against industry fluctuations until it matures and stabilizes. In addition, although it overlaps other industry sectors, there are a limited number of individuals (inside and outside of the educational field) who can provide quality instruction across the range of technologies and needs. An effort is therefore required to develop educator training programs at all levels. The process should take advantage of existing experts already working in the ocean-based renewable energy field though guest lectures or temporary teaching positions.
An absence of coordination and collaboration between industry, workers, and academia with specific focus on under-represented populations. As observed in the land-based wind workforce development process, there is a gap in understanding between academia (what skills the industry needs), industry (how to identify new workers with the appropriate base skills), and potential workers (specific job expectations, entry process, compensation, and advancement) (Keyser and Tegen 2019). As the ocean-based renewable energy industry develops, specific focus is needed to expand collaboration among these groups to make sure that the efforts made to attract potential workers and develop educational programs result in workers that are trained, but who can and want to work in the sector. In addition, national- and international-level coordination among the different market sectors will be important to guarantee that a coordinated educational infrastructure is implemented, reducing programmatic overlap and the lead time to implement programs while ensuring industry participation and support.

Without support for the efforts identified earlier from governments or through academic and industry partnerships, it will remain difficult to address the worker training needs to match expected industry growth. It is also important that development of workforce and educational programs coincide with governmental energy policy and industry development projections to ensure that enough time is allowed to develop new training infrastructure and that there are positions for newly educated workers following the completion of training programs.

7. Approaches for addressing near-term and future skills gaps

Although numerous efforts will be needed to train the workforce that will implement the ocean-based renewable energy market, key aspects are likely to persist including the different technology sectors and corresponding methods to develop the workforce.

Based on the previously mentioned gaps and the understanding that workforce development programs worldwide should be tailored to the market segments that are most likely to be needed, several key areas of focus are needed over the near term to help ensure market development. These include:

7.1. A focus on occupation standardization and worker certifications

The size and geographic fragmentation of the current ocean-based renewable energy market mean that workers likely will not work the same job or for the same parent company over the course of their careers. To facilitate successful and safe project development, employers will need to have a clear understanding of worker skills without having the ability to actively engage with the development of those skills. The use of skill mapping, standardization of specific job classifications, worker certification, and rapid skill assessments will greatly support the development of a fluid, highly skilled workforce to meet the industry's growing development needs.

7.2. Collaboration among governments, industry, and academic institutions

Expanded collaboration on the global, regional, national, and local levels between governments, industry, academic institutions, and nongovernmental community organizations is needed to successfully and efficiently develop a workforce program that meets current and future industry needs. Without this collaboration, investments will be made for educational programs that are producing a workforce that the industry does not need or with skills that are not in demand. This collaboration must be backed by analysis of industry trends based on expected energy policy.

7.3. Development of apprenticeship or apprenticeship-like opportunities

Apprenticeship or apprenticeship-like programs, such as fellowships, have been demonstrated to successfully create a workforce that meets many of the industry's needs. Whether for more technical trade-skilled or entry-level project development positions, apprenticeship approaches allow the industry to work closely with academic and training institutions to ensure that students are gaining the skills that the industry needs. Apprenticeship programs can also more easily target underserved or minority-serving academic institutions or areas, helping companies expand diversity.

7.4. Development of academic institutions

Investments will need to be made in and by academic institutions to develop educational programs at all levels. These investments will be needed from public, private, and corporate sources, with a strong focus on bringing industry experience into the academic environment, especially at community colleges and universities. This financial support can take many forms, such as direct funding, apprentice/internship opportunities, guest lectures or other professional collaboration, research investments, donation of equipment, or participation on advisory or other curricula oversight boards. At the very least, the development of academic programs should be based, in part, on detailed assessment of market needs, including overlay of geographic and market timeline information. As the need for highly skilled workers grows, expanded collaboration between academia will be needed, including the expansion of international collaboration on programs, curricula, and degrees, such as the European Wind Energy Academy and international university programs, wherein defined curricula from one university are implemented at other international universities.

8. Conclusions

In order to enable ocean-based renewable energy industries to continue to grow at pace and to maximize the economic potential, it is critical to better understand the workforce needs and develop the educational and training infrastructure to meet the global needs of these developments.

Based on our assessment, the following three steps should be prioritized to address this challenge:

(a)
Conduct further analysis in a global context to better understand specific skill sets and general workforce needs.
(b)
Perform an assessment of existing educational institutions across the range of needs, generally from secondary through postgraduate, with specific consideration of advanced vocational training and methods to train workers who can cross over from adjacent industries.
(c)
Implement a method to allow sector wide collaboration and communication and develop both domestic and international training standards and forums to share experience.

Acknowledgments

This work was authored by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, operated by Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC, for the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) under Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308. Funding provided by the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Wind Energy Technologies Office. The views expressed in the article do not necessarily represent the views of the DOE or the U.S. Government. The U.S. Government retains and the publisher, by accepting the article for publication, acknowledges that the U.S. Government retains a nonexclusive, paid-up, irrevocable, worldwide license to publish or reproduce the published form of this work, or allow others to do so, for U.S. Government purposes.

Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available upon reasonable request from the authors.