Measuring surface temperatures in a woodland savanna: Opportunities and challenges of thermal imaging in an open-canopy ecosystem
Introduction
Plant temperature exerts fundamental control on physiological processes such as photosynthesis (Farquhar, von Caemmerer, Berry, 1980, Way and Yamori, 2014), respiration (Heskel et al., 2016), transpiration (Gates, 1968), and growth and development (Michaletz, 2018). It has long been recognized as an indicator of plant water relations (Brown and Escombe, 1905), and has been used to assess moisture stress at scales from individuals (Jackson et al., 1977) to continents (Anderson et al., 2007). At an ecosystem-scale, plant and soil temperatures influence fluxes of carbon, water, and energy and play a key role in energy budget closure (Heusinkveld, Jacobs, Holtslag, Berkowicz, 2004, Meyers, Hollinger, 2004).
Ecosystem structure can strongly influence vegetation thermal environments and therefore productivity (Rotenberg and Yakir, 2010). Open-canopy, semi-arid and Mediterranean ecosystems are subject to seasonal water deficit, fire, grazing pressure, and high incoming radiation, yet they are typically carbon sinks, even during extended drought (Ma et al., 2016, Rotenberg, Yakir, 2010). Structure (in addition to phenology [Maseyk et al., 2008], plant physiology [Baldocchi et al., 2004], and rooting depth [Miller et al., 2010]) appears to play an important role in a savanna’s ability to maintain function: the low density of trees results in high aerodynamic roughness and strong canopy-atmosphere coupling, which makes the system an efficient convector of sensible heat. Therefore, despite the high radiation loading, low albedo (compared to shrublands and grasslands), and seasonally very low precipitation, savannas can maintain a relatively low canopy surface temperature and physiologically favorable carbon, water, and energy balances (Baldocchi, Xu, Kiang, 2004, Rotenberg, Yakir, 2010). In this context, long-term and spatially resolved temperatures of the various components of a savanna system (e.g. soil, understory grass, and overstory trees) are of great interest.
Field-deployable thermal cameras are a promising tool with which to measure these temperatures (Aubrecht, Helliker, Goulden, Roberts, Still, Richardson, 2016, Kim et al., 2016, Kim, Still, Roberts, Goulden, 2018, Pau, Detto, Kim, Still, 2018, Still, Powell, Aubrecht, Kim, Helliker, Roberts, Richardson, Goulden, 2019). Aubrecht et al. (2016) provide an excellent summary of thermal camera calibration theory, a sensitivity analysis for calibration parameters, and a camera sensor noise and accuracy assessment. They also demonstrate the utility of thermal cameras to measure canopy temperature in an eastern deciduous forest and an evergreen needleleaf forest (Aubrecht et al., 2016). Here, we extend Aubrecht et al.’s thermal imaging guide to the case of heterogeneous, open-canopy ecosystems. While thermal imaging of an open-canopy ecosystem presents an opportunity to measure vertically and horizontally disparate components of the system concurrently, it may also introduce challenges which are (comparatively) absent when imaging a closed canopy. Specifically, background radiation conditions (i.e. radiation from the surroundings that reflects off the target of interest) vary significantly for regions of interest at different vertical heights, emissivity is variable across ecosystem components, thermal image pixels correspond to variable geographical space associated with the varying distances of targets from the camera, and ecosystem heterogeneity amplifies the confounding effects of mixed pixels.
In this paper, we: (1) quantify the theoretical effects of the potential challenges associated with thermal imaging in open-canopy systems; (2) assess the functional importance of these challenges in a Californian blue oak (Quercus douglasii) woodland savanna; and (3) contextualize the calibration challenges and demonstrate an opportunity offered by thermal imaging in an open-canopy system by using thermal images to generate sensible heat flux estimations, including geographical heterogeneity, with the two-source energy balance model (TSEB, Norman et al., 1995). Additionally, we include an analysis of the effect of the thermal camera’s protective enclosure on calibrated temperatures.
Section snippets
Site description
The camera deployment site is a seasonally-grazed oak savanna at 177 m of elevation in the lower foothills of California’s Sierra Nevada Mountains (38.438N, 120.968W). The overstory is open (leaf area index approximately 0.7, with considerable variation) and comprised mainly of deciduous Quercus douglasii (“oak”) interspersed with less numerous but considerably taller Pinus sabiniana (“pine”, Baldocchi et al., 2010, Fig. 1). The understory is dominated by annual C3 grass species, mostly
Imaging the reference panel
Each of the parameters required to convert the FLIR’s raw signal into temperature (Eqns. 2 and 3) was reported, measured, or calculated, with the exception of , which was assumed to be unity (see Appendix A for detail); there was no statistical tuning. There were, however, calibration choices associated with the source of the reflected energy, the location of the temperature and relative humidity measurements, and the presence or absence of an enclosure window. Given the physical realities,
Conclusions
In our open-canopy savanna system, the effects of large temperature differences among ecosystem components dominated the effects of emissivity and reflected radiation diversity, both in calibration (mixed pixels are most confounding) and in application (choice of substrate has a larger effect on TSEB results than emissivity/reflected radiation corrections). This result highlights the value of spatially-explicit thermal measurements, which is further emphasized by the utility of multiple
Funding
This work was supported by NASA Earth and Space Science Fellowship award NNX16AO21H to M. Johnston and P. Moorcroft, the Harvard University Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, and the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation program, Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 703978 to A. Andreu.
Declaration of Competing Interest
None.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Elsa Abbott for spectrometer measurements of the panel and the soil, Jonathan Franklin for suggesting a Sobel filter/FFT detection of FOV shifts, Eva Rubio for consultation on the emissivity box, Alfonso Torres-Rua for emissivity discussions, Hector Nieto for pyTSEb code and support, and Koen Hufkens, Don Aubrecht, Youngil Kim, Susan Meerdink, Tony Rockwell, and Steve Wofsy for instrumentation consultation. In addition, many thanks to two anonymous reviewers for
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