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Application of supercritical fluid in the synthesis of graphene materials: a review

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Abstract

The studies on the utilisation of supercritical fluids (SCFs) in processing chemicals and materials have garnered significant attention in the past two decades. SCFs possess both gas- and liquid-like properties that are tunable, rendering them as superior solvents for reactions and processes, for example in the delamination of graphite. SCF technologies are deemed to be potential alternatives to existing technologies for graphene production that are yet to be industrially scalable. This review features recent works on the production of graphene facilitated by SCFs, with emphasis on the conversion of graphite to graphene through exfoliation and reduction. The exfoliation processes report the yield of 6 to 27% of monolayer graphene and 3 to 25% of ≤ 5 layers of graphene, whilst the carbon-to-oxygen (C/O) ratio of graphene produced via different reduction processes ranges from 0.37 to 28.2 with interlayer spacing of 0.35 to 0.38 nm. Recent applications of gas-expanded solvents for the synthesis of graphene and the fabrication of functionalised graphene materials via SCF-aided processes are also described. In addition, a summary of the properties of common SCFs as well as the characterisation of graphene materials, such as the number of layers, C/O ratio, interlayer spacing, pore size and surface area, is included to provide insights on the process efficiency.

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Funding

The authors gratefully express gratitude to all parties which have contributed towards the success of this project, both financially and technically, especially the S&T Innovation 2025 Major Special Programme (grant number 2018B10022) and the Ningbo Natural Science Foundation Programme (grant number 2018A610069) funded by the Ningbo Science and Technology Bureau, China, as well as the UNNC FoSE Faculty Inspiration Grant, China. The Zhejiang Provincial Department of Science and Technology is also acknowledged for this research under its Provincial Key Laboratory Programme (2020E10018).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo, 315100, People’s Republic of China

    Yoong Xin Pang & Cheng Heng Pang

  2. Department of Mechanical, Materials and Manufacturing, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo, 315100, People’s Republic of China

    Maxine Yew

  3. Municipal Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Conversion Technologies, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo, 315100, China

    Yuxin Yan & Cheng Heng Pang

  4. New Materials Institute, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo, 315100, People’s Republic of China

    Pan Khine, Andrew Filbert & Tao Wu

  5. Petroleum and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Brunei, Bandar Seri Begawan, BE1410, Brunei Darussalam

    Sivakumar Manickam

  6. Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering/Centre of Excellence for Green Technologies, University of Nottingham Malaysia, 43500, Semenyih, Selangor, Malaysia

    Dominic C. Y. Foo

  7. Department of Process Technology, Nofima AS, 4021, Stavanger, Norway

    Nusrat Sharmin

  8. Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK

    Edward Lester

  9. Key Laboratory for Carbonaceous Wastes Processing and Process Intensification Research of Zhejiang Province, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo, 315100, People’s Republic of China

    Tao Wu

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  1. Yoong Xin Pang
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Pang, Y.X., Yew, M., Yan, Y. et al. Application of supercritical fluid in the synthesis of graphene materials: a review. J Nanopart Res 23, 204 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-021-05254-w

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-021-05254-w

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