An updated overview of Canada's hydrogen related research and development activities

Abstract

Finding nature-friendly replacements for fossil-fuels based energy sources are considered vital, and such a task becomes critical for sustainable development. In this regard, hydrogen carries a significant weight potentially and becomes an essential driver in transitioning the economic sectors to carbon-free ones. While the world experiences this kind of transition with hydrogen, Canada appears to be among top ten countries conducting research, development and innovation activities extensively on hydrogen and intending to make hydrogen a key player in their green energy transition. In this study, the contributions of Canadian academic institutions, research centers and other organizations to hydrogen-related research, development and innovation activities over the last fifty years are studied and evaluated comparatively. A comprehensive literature search is conducted to identify the number of hydrogen-related research articles, books, dissertations, patents and funded projects affiliated with Canadian institutes. The findings are presented graphically and discussed from various perspectives. The conducted literature search results show that Canadian institutes have contributed to hydrogen research with a total of 112,454 scholarly publications from 1971 to 2021. During period, the number of hydrogen-related academic articles and books has become 108,437 and 2995, respectively. In the subject area of energy, the relatively young Canadian institution, Ontario Tech University, has contributed the highest to hydrogen research in Canada by producing about 11% of academic articles and about 27% of books, book chapters, and editorials in the subject matter field of hydrogen research and development activities.

Introduction

Hydrogen is known as the lightest and most abundant chemical element in the universe that carries the greatest potential to be the key to the green energy economy for a more sustainable, environmentally-benign and peaceful planet. Hydrogen, comprising one proton and one electron, only occurs naturally within a compound, such as water (H₂O). It is an energy carrier, like electricity, that can store and transport energy obtained from other sources. It can also potentially serve as fuel and feedstock. As an alternative energy carrier, hydrogen can significantly contribute to energy security by diversifying the energy mix and enhancing the resilience with different supply chains, markets and producers. When it is used in fuel cell, the process only produces water and heat as byproduct, which allows to a cradle-to-grave green power generation. One of the major challenge with hydrogen is the low calorific value per unit of volume due to its low density. On the other hand, power systems fueled with hydrogen performs higher efficiency than conventional power systems operating on fossil fuels, which compensates the low storage density [1].

The first reported encounter with hydrogen is known as 15th. Swiss scientist Phillip von Hohenheim, also known as Paracelsus, was the first to artificially produce hydrogen in gas form by dissolving iron in spirit of vitriol [2]. In 1670, Robert Boyle conducted an experiment to produce hydrogen gas via single-displacement reaction [3]. In 1776, English scientist Henry Cavendish published the first research article on hydrogen, describing hydrogen as a distinct and flammable element [4]. In his study, which today is considered as a cornerstone for hydrogen research, it was also noted that burning hydrogen substance produced water. In 1974, Professor Nejat Veziroglu organized one of the earliest hydrogen energy related conferences in Miami, USA [5]. This milestone-type conference has become a turning point for hydrogen energy and inspired many researchers to contribute to the subject area.

Fossil fuel reforming via thermochemical processes appears as the main hydrogen production method in the market. In the current state, coal gasification and natural gas steam reforming together cover more than 75% of industrial hydrogen production [6]. These conventional hydrogen production methods contribute to the global CO₂ emissions by about 2% that corresponds to 830 million tons of annual CO₂ emissions [7]. However, the finite existence nature of the hydrocarbon-based fuels and the CO₂ emissions associated with consumption activities of these energy sources make a green transition in global hydrogen production crucial, which is also required for all other energy-related matters. Data provided by International Energy Agency (IEA) indicates that low-carbon hydrogen production was 0.36 million tons (Mts) in 2019 [8], which corresponds to a total of 0.52% of global annual hydrogen production (69 Mts/year). For the sector, the target is to increase the annual clean hydrogen production to 7.92 million tons by 2030. Hydrogen can effectively be generated from renewable resources such as solar, wind, biomass and geothermal, which is so-called green hydrogen. Table 1 presents the potential hydrogen production methods powered from these clean and abundant resources. Energy attained from renewables, which can be photonic, electrical, thermal or biochemical, can be employed in green-hydrogen production by implementing production technique in accordance with provided form of energy. Integration of hydrogen production into renewable energy technologies may improves these technologies in terms of effectiveness, reliability, utilization from renewable sources; thus, decreasing emission factors per kWh considerably. Therefore, one may state that hydrogen and renewable technologies should be considered together as completing each other's deficiencies.

Renewable-energy based applications help to increase energy security while mitigating environmental concerns via domestic and environmentally benign sources. Furthermore, avoiding volatile fuel costs and long-distance transportation challenges via renewable energy applications can stabilize economies that essentially rely on imported fossil fuel for their energy needs. Wind and solar-based energy technologies have rapidly been advancing and are capable of extracting efficiently more from these free, clean and abundant resources. However, renewable resources are intermittent; therefore, the development of effective and affordable energy storage systems is essential to increase capacity factors while decreasing environmental impacts via harnessing more energy from renewable resources. Hydrogen is a vital commodity that has excelsior higher heating value (HHV) and lower heating value (LHV) than that of conventional fuels, and it possesses great energy exchange effectiveness. Moreover, hydrogen is recognized as a promising energy storage medium for renewable energy systems to mitigate intermittency issues via fulfilling the gap between supply and demand. Among many, some of the most appealing advantages of hydrogen may be listed as follows:

• High energy conversion efficiency

• No carbon content and net-zero CO₂ emissions in consumption

• Effective storage medium for energy needs

• Potential feedstock to produce ammonia and other renewable fuels and chemicals

• Higher heating values than those of various conventional fuels (HHV_H2: 141,8 MJ/kg and LHV_H2: 119.9 MJ/kg)

• Clean production through dissociation of water

• Better energy security via production from local sources with renewables

• Unique choice of energy for carbon-free economy

The primary production methods of hydrogen today are, at present, fossil fuel-based due to economic factors. Fig. 1 presents a compilation of hydrogen production costs ($/kg) with respect to the production method. Hydrogen from fossil fuel still appears as competitive, whereas new policies are needed to support renewable-based hydrogen production technologies to narrow the gap. However, hydrogen from solar, wind and nuclear energy emits much lower CO₂ emissions than that of conventional methods. In the context of zero/low emission energy transition, renewable-based hydrogen technologies should be promoted to accomplish a more nature-friendly hydrogen sector. Fig. 2 shows the CO₂ emission rates (kg CO₂/kg H₂) of various hydrogen production methods. In this regard, nuclear-based hydrogen production appears promising. Furthermore, nuclear technology allows diversifying the production methods since both thermal and electrical energy options are available to use.

Considering the production method, hydrogen has recently been identified by color codes to define its nature-friendly characteristics. In this regard, hydrogen from conventional production methods namely natural gas steam reforming and coal gasification is defined as gray and black hydrogen, respectively. If carbon capturing is applied to these production processes, then hydrogen produced is defined as blue hydrogen. The environmental impacts of a product or process are to be evaluated by considering the extraction of resources to disposal. The source of energy that is used in the process is the primary parameter that contributes to emission rates. Hydrogen is already a non-pollutant or less-pollutant fuel at the end use. The emissions associated with hydrogen essentially come from the production phase. Therefore, hydrogen production powered by renewable resources such as solar or wind is known as green, in other word, clean hydrogen. Canada is known as one of the top ten hydrogen producers with an annual production rate of 3 Mts that corresponds to more than 4% of global hydrogen production, and Canada uses conventional production methods for its hydrogen [10]. On the other hand, Canada has a significant potential to turn its hydrogen color to green on total level by relying on its diversified renewable resources and large geography. As of today, 18.9% of Canada's primary energy is renewable [11]. The ratio further increases if nuclear-power is taken into account, which provides 15% of Canada's electricity [12]. Fig. 3 presents a potential green hydrogen route for Canada.

Canada's hydrogen and fuel cell sectors are thriving in export markets. The sector's profit in 2017 became $207 while providing 1600 jobs [10]. As a global actor in hydrogen market, Canada participates international hydrogen organizations as well. Canada announced a call-to-action hydrogen strategic plan in December 2020, which promotes hydrogen to realize Canada's net-zero green-house emission target by 2050 and to make the country a global renewable fuel leader [15]. Canada's new strategic plan on hydrogen is a work of a three-year period over which ideas of more than 1500 experts and stakeholders were taken through engagement sessions. After describing hydrogen and global momentum for clean hydrogen, the report discusses hydrogen production, end-use and distribution opportunities in Canada as well as beyond the border. The report also gives a place to potential challenges and their solutions ahead of hydrogen-based energy and economy. In the report, it is foreseen that potential investments and partnerships on hydrogen can provide 350,000 new jobs in Canada while disentangling the country from pollutant conventional hydrocarbon-based energy resources over the next three decades. It is clear that the report will play a crucial role in guiding Canada's will and investments in hydrogen energy wisely. In November 2020, the Province of Ontario called for a discussion paper on the province's first hydrogen strategy [16]. The paper invited the public and experts from different sectors to provide their feedback on how to set hydrogen as a reformer in the energy sector of the province. While these tremendous efforts have been made by local and federal authorities, a hydrogen blending pilot project has been declared by Enbridge Gas Inc., a Canadian giant in the energy transportation sector. By this $5.2-million project, hydrogen will be blended into the existing natural gas network of the company in Markham, Ontario [17]. It is intended to enhance the combustion ratio of natural gas via adding hydrogen into the mixture; thus, the greenhouse gas emissions will be reduced. In this regard, the project, supported by Sustainable Development Technology Canada, is the first hydrogen blending project in North America.

All these efforts clearly state that Canada's choice for future energy is hydrogen. This choice is not only made by recognizing the potential of hydrogen as an energy commodity but also by the awareness of the country's potential to realize such a radical transition. Canada has a well-established and mature hydrogen sector. The private sector companies of Canada such as Ballard Power and Hydrogenics already have global recognition in the hydrogen sector. With her diversified and rich feedstocks to produce hydrogen as well as pioneering institutes, Canada has an enormous potential to become the global leader in exporting hydrogen and hydrogen technologies. In the current study, the research, development, innovation and commercialization activities undertaken by Canadian institutes on hydrogen energy from 1971 to 2021 are assessed through a comprehensive literature search. The study intends to keep a projection on the hydrogen efforts of Canadian institutes, which may provide a clear picture to formal and private institutions for potential partnerships and investments. The literature search compiles an extensive set of data on hydrogen studies conducted by the institutes in Canada. These institutes appearing as the most productive in the corresponding fields are presented with the numbers of conducted studies. The potential impacts of recent progress and future developments on the status of hydrogen energy research are also discussed and evaluated comparatively.