A multilevel investigation of factors influencing university students’ behavioral engagement in flipped classrooms
Introduction
Recently, implementation of flipped classrooms in higher education has accelerated in response to the demand for technology-enhanced and student-centered learning environments (Kim, Kim, Khera, & Getman, 2014; Steen-Utheim & Foldnes, 2018; Sun, Xie, & Anderman, 2018). The flipped classroom is a blended teaching method that combines online learning and face-to-face classroom activities (Thai, De Wever, & Valcke, 2017). The idea is to change the order of the education process: The classroom is mainly for knowledge assimilation and is a place for doing homework, learning cooperatively, and solving problems. Out-of-class time is mainly for transmitting knowledge, and students complete learning tasks independently, such as watching instructional videos, reading, and collecting data from websites at a convenient time and place (Fidalgo-Blanco, Martinez-Nuñez, Borrás-Gene, & Sanchez-Medina, 2017).
The flipped classroom model offers students four benefits for learning: reading flexibility, active learning, rich material availability, and technology utilization. (1) Regarding reading flexibility, students are required to complete learning activities outside the classroom. These learning activities are facilitated through technological resources (O’Flaherty & Phillips, 2015), such as learning management systems (LMSs), self-made instructional videos, or open video resources. These resources also allow students to pause or review material, control the pace and frequency, and print slides as additional notes. (2) Regarding active learning, the flipped classroom promotes students’ active, cooperative, and problem-based learning (Mason, Shuman, & Cook, 2013). In-class interaction in a flipped classroom creates a meaningful learning interaction between teachers and students (Lundin, Rensfeldt, Hillman, Lantz-Andersson, & Peterson, 2018). (3) Regarding rich material availability, instructional material can be presented in various formats and cover more course material without sacrificing content than with the traditional classroom method (Mason et al., 2013). (4) Concerning technology utilization, it is much easier for teachers to use online instructional videos and assessment systems, making the flipped classroom effective and scalable (Davies, Dean, & Ball, 2013). The reasons above show that the flipped classroom model offers many advantages over the traditional lecture model.
To be successful, flipped classrooms need student engagement (Lai, 2021). Therefore, improving student engagement in and outside the classroom is imperative (O’Flaherty & Phillips, 2015). Student engagement is multidimensional and typically, conceptualized in three domains: cognitive, emotional, and behavioral (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004). A meta-analysis by Lei, Cui, and Zhou (2018) revealed that behavioral engagement is associated with higher academic achievement, followed by cognitive and emotional engagement. Student engagement was most frequently measured from the behavioral perspective—behavioral engagement (Bond, Buntins, Bedenlier, Zawacki-Richter, & Kerres, 2020; Henrie, Halverson, & Graham, 2015)—with indicators such as participation, attendance, assignments completed, time spent online, and on-task behavior (Henrie et al., 2015). A review of the existing literature revealed two justifications for using the flipped classroom approach and students’ behavioral engagement. First, the growing literature indicates that this approach is related to increased behavioral engagement levels (Bond, 2020) compared to behavioral engagement in the traditional classroom approach (Elmaadaway, 2018). However, some researchers (Hodgson, Cunningham, McGee, Kinne, & Murphy, 2017; Lo & Hew, 2021; Subramaniam & Muniandy, 2019) found no significant difference in behavioral engagement between flipped and non-flipped classrooms. Thus, the results found have been inconclusive.
Second, educational data are typically represented at multiple levels, including the class and student levels. Every student is nested within a particular class, and the teacher and students influence one another (Young, Reynolds, & Walberg, 1996). To ensure the persistence of university students’ behavioral engagement in flipped classrooms, it is important to explore how students’ behavioral engagement can be promoted. Their behavioral engagement depends on student- and class-level factors (Gasiewski, Eagan, Garcia, Hurtado, & Chang, 2012). The efficiency of the flipped classroom lies in instructor implementation in a classroom setting (DeLozier & Rhodes, 2017; Hew, Bai, Dawson, & Lo, 2021). Variation in flipped classroom quality must be accounted for; class-level factors may reflect the variation.
The aim of this study is to address the research gaps in previous studies. Thus, the following research questions guided this study:
- (1)
How do student- and class-level factors jointly promote students’ behavioral engagement in flipped classrooms?
- (2)
What contradictions, if any, arise in students’ behavioral engagement in flipped classrooms?
To address the first question, we investigated student- and class-level factors based on the motivation-opportunity-ability (MOA) perspective and self-determinant theory (SDT) that can help understand how to promote students’ behavioral engagement in flipped classrooms. Our rationale is based on the MOA perspective: Students may have adequate motivation, but ability is needed to perform well in a flipped classroom. Moreover, although students may have adequate motivation, the classroom environment creates the opportunity for engagement. An important implication is that students’ behavioral engagement is enhanced by adequate motivation, readiness to engage in flipped learning, and high perceived teaching quality or perceived platform quality. According to SDT, engagement in human behavior is motivated by autonomous and controlled motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985a). Specifically, student-level motivation (autonomous and controlled motivation), student-level ability (perceived self-efficacy), and class-level opportunity (perceived teaching quality and perceived platform quality) may operate as co-determinants of students’ behavioral engagement in a flipped classroom. To address the second question, we used follow-up interviews and drew on Engeström’s (1987) activity theory to find contradictions that arise in students’ behavioral engagement in flipped classrooms.
Section snippets
Factors influencing students’ behavioral engagement in flipped classrooms
The term “student engagement” originated from school engagement (Fredricks et al., 2004). Student engagement refers to “the energy and effort that students employ within their learning community” (Bond et al., 2020, p. 3). In a systematic review of flipped classrooms in K–12 contexts, Bond (2020) proposed that student engagement in a flipped classroom is influenced by the teacher, curriculum, technology, student, family, and peers. Teacher factors include teachers’ presence, feedback, support,
Research model
To understand how student- and class-level factors promote students’ behavioral engagement in flipped classrooms, we developed a cross-level moderation model (Fig. 2).
Level 1 model
Self-efficacy can be regarded as a self-regulation mechanism (Maricuțoiu & Sulea, 2019). People accomplish tasks depending on their skills and beliefs in efficacy (Bandura, 1993). Individuals with the same knowledge and skills may perform differently depending on fluctuations in individuals self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1993).
Data collection
Before we conducted a formal survey, we performed a pretest and a pilot test to ensure the suitability of the instrument used. Most items were based on previous research (see Appendix B) and pre-tested with a panel of four e-learning professionals to ensure that all items were appropriately adjusted for a flipped classroom and that there were no semantic biases in the translation process from English to Chinese. We made minor changes based on the professionals’ comments. We then pilot tested
Reliability and validity
Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability were used to evaluate the internal consistency of all variables. Table 2 shows that the Cronbach’s alpha values exceeded the 0.7 cutoff values (Nunnally, 1978), and the composite reliability surpassed the 0.70 threshold values (Fornell & Larcker, 1981); thus, adequate reliability of all variables was confirmed. A six-factor confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed that included controlled motivation, autonomous motivation, perceived
Effect of perceived self-efficacy, autonomous motivation, and controlled motivation
We contribute to the literature by offering evidence that students who perceive high self-efficacy or have autonomous motivation may engage in flipped classrooms. These findings confirm previous research that showed perceived self-efficacy is a significant factor in student engagement (Maricuțoiu & Sulea, 2019). Moreover, the findings parallel previous research that autonomous motivation or self-motivation induces more behavioral effort and persistence (Reinholt, Pedersen, & Foss, 2011),
Conclusions and suggestions for future research
In this study, we developed and tested a theoretical model that explores how students’ behavioral engagement can be promoted in flipped classrooms and what contradictions arise. This study contributes to theory and practice in three ways. First, we used a survey to explore the potential antecedents and interaction factors for university students’ behavioral engagement in flipped classrooms. Second, we used the MOA perspective and SDT to select potential factors for student-level motivation
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan, R.O.C ( MOST 106-2511-S-270-001-MY2 and MOST Add-on Grant for International Cooperation).
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