Abstract
The current study aimed to test the relationship between Internet addiction, loneliness, disordered sleep, and depression among a sample of Iranian university students at the undergraduate level considering the moderating role of gender. Compulsive Internet use was measured using the Internet addiction scale developed by Young. Depression was measured by the depression subscale of the SCL90 and feelings of loneliness were measured using the 3rd Persian version of the UCLA loneliness scale. Disordered sleep was assessed using the Persian version of the quality of sleep scale. Structural equation modelling was employed to test the mediation-moderation models. Primary results show that Internet addiction predicted depression, loneliness predicted disordered sleep and Internet addiction predicted disordered sleep. The roles of mediators have been proved in all models. Gender’s moderating role was not significant in any of the models.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
AbdulRahman, I., Yaqoob, U., & Bhatti, T. A. (2018). Sleep disorders caused by depression. Clinical Depression, 4(131), 2572–791. https://doi.org/10.4172/2572-0791.1000131
Alimoradi, Z., Lin, C.-Y., Broström, A., Bülow, P. H., Bajalan, Z., Griffiths, M. D., Ohayon, M. M., & Pakpour, A. H. (2019). Internet addiction and sleep problems: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 47, 51–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2019.06.004
Aryan, S., Aryan, H., & Halderman, J. A. (2013). Internet censorship in Iran: A first look. In: Proc. 3rd {USENIX} Workshop on Free and Open Communications on the Internet ({FOCI} 13).
Baglioni, C., Battagliese, G., Feige, B., Spiegelhalder, K., Nissen, C., Voderholzer, U., Lombardo, C., & Riemann, D. (2011). Insomnia as a predictor of depression: A meta-analytic evaluation of longitudinal epidemiological studies. Journal of Affective Disorders, 135(1–3), 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2011.01.011
Baumgartner, H., & Steenkamp, J.-B.E. (1998). Multi-group latent variable models for varying numbers of items and factors with cross-national and longitudinal applications. Marketing Letters, 9(1), 21–35. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1007911903032
Beard, K. W., & Wolf, E. M. (2001). Modification in the proposed diagnostic criteria for Internet addiction. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 4(3), 377–383. https://doi.org/10.1089/109493101300210286
Buysse, D., Reynolds, C., Monk, T., & Berman, S. (1989). The Pittsburgh sleep quality index: A new instrument for psychiatric practice and research. Psychiatry Research, 28(2), 193–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-1781(89)90047-4
Canan, F., Yildirim, O., Sinani, G., Ozturk, O., Ustunel, T. Y., & Ataoglu, A. (2013). Internet addiction and sleep disturbance symptoms among Turkish high school students. Sleep and Biological Rhythms, 11(3), 210–213. https://doi.org/10.1111/sbr.12022
Carli, V., Durkee, T., Wasserman, D., Hadlaczky, G., Despalins, R., Kramarz, E., Wasserman, C., Sarchiapone, M., Hoven, C. W., & Brunner, R. (2013). The association between pathological internet use and comorbid psychopathology: A systematic review. Psychopathology, 46(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1159/000337971
Cheung, J.C.-S., Chan, K.H.-W., Lui, Y.-W., Tsui, M.-S., & Chan, C. (2018). Psychological well-being and adolescents’ internet addiction: A school-based cross-sectional study in Hong Kong. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 35(5), 477–487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-018-0543-7
Derogatis, L. R., & Unger, R. (2010). Symptom checklist-90-revised. The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy0970
Erzen, E., & Çikrikci, Ö. (2018). The effect of loneliness on depression: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 64(5), 427–435. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764018776349
Eskandari, H. (2017). Cultural pattern of depression in Iranian students with an emphasis on gender and marital status. Cultural Psychology, 1(1), 4–24. https://www.sid.ir/en/journal/ViewPaper.aspx?id=684347
Ferraro, G., Caci, B., & D’amico, A., & Blasi, M. D. . (2006). Internet addiction disorder: An Italian study. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 10(2), 170–175. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2006.9972
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics. Sage Publications.
Ghamari, F., Mohammadbeigi, A., Mohammadsalehi, N., & Hashiani, A. A. (2011). Internet addiction and modeling its risk factors in medical students, Iran. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 33(2), 158.
Gol-Afrooz, M., Sadeghi, H., Mousavi, S., & Tabrizi, Y. (2014). The effect of applying the follow-up care model on sleep quality in patients with type 2 diabetes. Journal of Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences, 21(4), 655–664.
Goslar, M., Leibetseder, M., Muench, H. M., Hofmann, S. G., & Laireiter, A.-R. (2020). Treatments for internet addiction, sex addiction and compulsive buying: A meta-analysis. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 9(1), 14–43. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.2020.00005
Griffin, S. C., Williams, A. B., Ravyts, S. G., Mladen, S. N., & Rybarczyk, B. D. (2020). Loneliness and sleep: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Health Psychology Open, 7(1), 2055102920913235. https://doi.org/10.1177/2055102920913235
Griffiths, M. (2005). A ‘components’ model of addiction within a biopsychosocial framework. Journal of Substance Use, 10(4), 191–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/14659890500114359
Ha, J. H., Kim, S. Y., Bae, S. C., Bae, S., Kim, H., Sim, M., Lyoo, I. K., & Cho, S. C. (2007). Depression and Internet addiction in adolescents. Psychopathology, 40(6), 424–430. https://doi.org/10.1159/000107426
Hair, J., Hollingsworth, C. L., Randolph, A. B., & Chong, A. Y. L. (2017). An updated and expanded assessment of PLS-SEM in information systems research. Industrial Management & Data Systems. https://doi.org/10.1108/imds-04-2016-0130
Hair, J. F., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2011). PLS-SEM: Indeed a silver bullet. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 19(2), 139–152. https://doi.org/10.2753/mtp1069-6679190202
Higuchi, S., Motohashi, Y., Liu, Y., & Maeda, A. (2005). Effects of playing a computer game using a bright display on presleep physiological variables, sleep latency, slow wave sleep and REM sleep. Journal of Sleep Research, 14(3), 267–273. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2869.2005.00463.x
Hom, M. A., Chu, C., Rogers, M. L., & Joiner, T. E. (2020). A meta-analysis of the relationship between sleep problems and loneliness. Clinical Psychological Science, 8(5), 799–824. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702620922969
Jahan, S. M., Hossain, S. R., Sayeed, U. B., Wahab, A., Rahman, T., & Hossain, A. (2019). Association between internet addiction and sleep quality among students: A cross-sectional study in Bangladesh. Sleep and Biological Rhythms, 17(3), 323–329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41105-019-00219-y
Jandaghi, G., Firoozi, M., & ZiaTohidi, A. (2020). Psychological interventions for depression and anxiety: a systematic review and meta-analysis of Iranian chronic pain trials. Health Promotion Perspectives, 10(3), 180. https://doi.org/10.34172/hpp.2020.31
Jenaro, C., Flores, N., Gómez-Vela, M., González-Gil, F., & Caballo, C. (2007). Problematic internet and cell-phone use: Psychological, behavioral, and health correlates. Addiction Research & Theory, 15(3), 309–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/16066350701350247
Kang, S.-G., Lee, H.-J., Kim, L., & Winkelman, J. W. (2018). Sleep and sleep disorders in depression. In Y.-K. Kim (Ed.), Understanding depression (pp. 113–121). Singapore: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6577-4_8
Kaplan, B. J. (2016). Kaplan and sadock’s synopsis of psychiatry. Behavioral sciences/clinical psychiatry. Tijdschrift Voor Psychiatrie, 58(1), 78–79.
Kheirabadi, D., Kheirabadi, G. R., & Tarrahi, M. J. (2020). Depression literacy and the related factors among a group of hospitals’ staff in Iran. International Journal of Social Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020954886
Kikhavani, S., Roshani, S., Aj, S., & Sayehmiri, K. (2017). The relationship between internet addiction and depression in the Iranian users: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Epidemiologic Research, 4(4), 270–275. https://doi.org/10.15171/ijer.2017.16
Kim, J., LaRose, R., & Peng, W. (2009). Loneliness as the cause and the effect of problematic Internet use: The relationship between Internet use and psychological well-being. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 12(4), 451–455. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2008.0327
Kraut, R., Patterson, M., Lundmark, V., Kiesler, S., Mukophadhyay, T., & Scherlis, W. (1998). Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological well-being? American Psychologist, 53(9), 1017. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.53.9.1017
Kuss, D. J., Griffiths, M., Karila, L. M., & Billieux, J. (2014). Internet addiction: A systematic review of epidemiological research for the last decade. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 20(25), 4026–4052. https://doi.org/10.2174/13816128113199990617
Lam, L. T. (2014). Internet gaming addiction, problematic use of the internet, and sleep problems: A systematic review. Current Psychiatry Reports, 16(4), 444. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-014-0444-1
Lei, L., & Yang, Y. (2007). The development and validation of adolescent pathological Internet use scale. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 39(04), 688–696. https://doi.org/10.1037/t53624-000
Li, W., Garland, E. L., McGovern, P., O’Brien, J. E., Tronnier, C., & Howard, M. O. (2017). Mindfulness-oriented recovery enhancement for internet gaming disorder in US adults: A stage I randomized controlled trial. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 31(4), 393. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000269
Liang, L., Zhou, D., Yuan, C., Shao, A., & Bian, Y. (2016). Gender differences in the relationship between internet addiction and depression: A cross-lagged study in Chinese adolescents. Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 463–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.201
Lin, Y.-H., & Gau, S.S.-F. (2013). Association between morningness–eveningness and the severity of compulsive Internet use: The moderating role of gender and parenting style. Sleep Medicine, 14(12), 1398–1404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2013.06.015
Masaeli, N., & Farhadi, H. (2021). Prevalence of Internet-based addictive behaviors during COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review. Journal of Addictive Diseases. https://doi.org/10.1080/10550887.2021.1895962
Meerkerk, G.-J., Van Den Eijnden, R. J., Vermulst, A. A., & Garretsen, H. F. (2009). The compulsive internet use scale (CIUS): Some psychometric properties. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 12(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2008.0181
Mirzamani, S. M., Sadidi, A., Sahrai, J., & Besharat, M. A. (2005). Anxiety and depression in patients with lower back pain. Psychological Reports, 96(3), 553–558. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.96.3.553-558
Modara, F., Rezaee-Nour, J., Sayehmiri, N., Maleki, F., Aghakhani, N., Sayehmiri, K., & Rezaei-Tavirani, M. (2017). Prevalence of internet addiction in Iran: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Addiction & Health, 9(4), 243.
Moghaddam, J. F., Nakhaee, N., Sheibani, V., Garrusi, B., & Amirkafi, A. (2012). Reliability and validity of the Persian version of the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI-P). Sleep and Breathing, 16(1), 79–82.
Morrison, C. M., & Gore, H. (2010). The relationship between excessive Internet use and depression: A questionnaire-based study of 1,319 young people and adults. Psychopathology, 43(2), 121–126. https://doi.org/10.1159/000277001s
Nie, N. H., & Hillygus, D. S. (2002). The impact of Internet use on sociability: Time-diary findings. It & Society, 1(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470774298.ch7
Owens, J., Maxim, R., McGuinn, M., Nobile, C., Msall, M., & Alario, A. (1999). Television-viewing habits and sleep disturbance in school children. Pediatrics, 104(3), e27–e27. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.104.3.e27
Pontes, H. M., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). Internet addiction disorder and internet gaming disorder are not the same. Journal of Addiction Research & Therapy. https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-6105.1000e124
Puri, A., & Sharma, R. (2016). Internet usage, depression, social isolation and loneliness amongst adolescents. Indian Journal of Health & Wellbeing, 7(10), 996–1001.
Rahimi, B. (2003). Cyberdissent: The Internet in revolutionary Iran. Middle East Review of International Affairs, 7(3), 101–115.
Rahimi, B. (2007). The politics of the Internet in Iran. In H. Semati (Ed.), Media, culture and society in Iran (pp. 53–72). Abington: Routledge.
Reinartz, W., Haenlein, M., & Henseler, J. (2009). An empirical comparison of the efficacy of covariance-based and variance-based SEM. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 26(4), 332–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2009.08.001
Ringle, C. M., Wende, S., & Will, A. (2005). SmartPLS 2.0. In: Hamburg.
Russell, D. W. (1996). UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): Reliability, validity, and factor structure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 66(1), 20–40.
Sadri, M.-R., & Tehranchi, A. (2016). Depressive and anxiety symptoms of Iranian immigrants in Denmark: A comparison. International Journal of Applied Behavioral Sciences, 3(2), 9–14.
Sajjadi, H., Kamal, S. H. M., Rafiey, H., Vameghi, M., Forouzan, A. S., & Rezaei, M. (2013). A systematic review of the prevalence and risk factors of depression among Iranian adolescents. Global Journal of Health Science, 5(3), 16. https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v5n3p16
Shapira, N. A., Lessig, M. C., Goldsmith, T. D., Szabo, S. T., Lazoritz, M., Gold, M. S., & Stein, D. J. (2003). Problematic internet use: Proposed classification and diagnostic criteria. Depression and Anxiety, 17(4), 207–216. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.10094
Sharbafchi, M. R., Afshar-Zanjani, H., & Rostami, H. (2020). Formulation and testing of a model of the relationship between psychological characteristics of depression, anxiety, and stress, and physical complaints of the Staff of a Military Unit in Tabriz, Iran, with the mediating role of chronic fatigue. International Journal of Body, Mind and Culture, 7, 51–61.
Shaw, L. H., & Gant, L. M. (2004). In defense of the Internet: The relationship between Internet communication and depression, loneliness, self-esteem, and perceived social support. Internet Research, 28(3), 157–71.
Soltanifar, A., Kamrani, M., & Golyar, E. (2019). Assessing the relationship between internet addiction and loneliness with sleep quality in youth population. Journal of Fundamentals of Mental Health, 21(3), 202–206.
Spear, L. P. (2000). The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 24(4), 417–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0149-7634(00)00014-2
Su, W., Han, X., Jin, C., Yan, Y., & Potenza, M. N. (2019). Are males more likely to be addicted to the internet than females? A meta-analysis involving 34 global jurisdictions. Computers in Human Behavior, 99, 86–100.
Touitou, Y., Touitou, D., & Reinberg, A. (2016). Disruption of adolescents’ circadian clock: The vicious circle of media use, exposure to light at night, sleep loss and risk behaviors. Journal of Physiology-Paris, 110(4), 467–479.
Van den Bulck, J. (2004). Television viewing, computer game playing, and Internet use and self-reported time to bed and time out of bed in secondary-school children. Sleep, 27(1), 101–104. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/27.1.101
Watson, J. C. (2005). Internet addiction diagnosis and assessment: Implications for counselors. Journal of Professional Counseling: Practice, Theory & Research, 33(2), 17–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/15566382.2005.12033815
Weiser, E. B. (2000). Gender differences in Internet use patterns and Internet application preferences: A two-sample comparison. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 3(2), 167–178. https://doi.org/10.1089/109493100316012
Yang, C.-K., Choe, B.-M., Baity, M., Lee, J.-H., & Cho, J.-S. (2005). SCL-90-R and 16PF profiles of senior high school students with excessive internet use. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 50(7), 407–414. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370505000704
Yao, M. Z., & Zhong, Z.-J. (2014). Loneliness, social contacts and Internet addiction: A cross-lagged panel study. Computers in Human Behavior, 30, 164–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.08.007s
Yen, J.-Y., Ko, C.-H., Yen, C.-F., Wu, H.-Y., & Yang, M.-J. (2007). The comorbid psychiatric symptoms of Internet addiction: Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), depression, social phobia, and hostility. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41(1), 93–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.02.002
Young, K., Pistner, M., & O’MARA, J., & Buchanan, J. . (1999). Cyber disorders: The mental health concern for the new millennium. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 2(5), 475–479. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.1999.2.475
Young, K. S. (1998a). Caught in the net: How to recognize the signs of internet addiction–and a winning strategy for recovery. John Wiley & Sons.
Young, K. S. (1998b). Internet addiction: The emergence of a new clinical disorder. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 1(3), 237–244.
Zajac, K., Ginley, M. K., Chang, R., & Petry, N. M. (2017). Treatments for Internet gaming disorder and Internet addiction: A systematic review. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 31(8), 979. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000315
Zarei, S., Memari, A. H., Moshayedi, P., & Shayestehfar, M. (2016). Validity and reliability of the UCLA loneliness scale version 3 in Farsi. Educational Gerontology, 42(1), 49–57.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr. Hadi Farhadi for his expert advice and encouragement throughout this project and his assistance in the witting of this article.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
All authors have no conflict of interest to report.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Masaeli, N., Farhadi, H. Internet Addiction and Depression in Iran: Investigating the Mediating Roles of Loneliness and Disordered Sleep and Moderating Role of Gender. Int J Adv Counselling 43, 407–423 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-021-09447-9
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-021-09447-9