Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A Systematic Review of the Facilitators and Barriers to the Sustained Implementation of School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports

  • Review
  • Published:
Education and Treatment of Children Aims and scope Submit manuscript

A Correction to this article was published on 27 October 2021

This article has been updated

Abstract

School-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (SWPBIS) is an effective and widely adopted school-wide framework for promoting positive behavioral, social, and academic outcomes for students. However, over the past decade, the degree to which schools were able to implement specific SWPBIS practices with fidelity has emerged as a critical issue, with varying levels of SWPBIS abandonment reported in the literature. Authors have used the term facilitators to describe specific variables that appear to support the sustained implementation of SWPBIS, and the term barriers to describe specific variables that appear to hinder the sustained implementation of SWPBIS (Kincaid et al., 2007). The purpose of the present review was to identify, summarize, and appraise the extant literature on variables reported to function as facilitators and barriers to the sustained implementation of SWPBIS. We identified 22 unique variables that may function as facilitators or barriers. The provision of resources, high fidelity of implementation, and effective SWPBIS team function were the most commonly described facilitators, whereas a conflict in personal beliefs, an ineffective SWPBIS team, and a lack of resources were the most commonly identified barriers. The implications of these findings, along with areas for future research, are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Change history

References

Note: An asterix denotes a study was included for analysis in the current review

  • *Andreou, T. E., McIntosh, K., Ross, S. W., & Kahn, J. D. (2015). Critical incidents in sustaining school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports. Journal of Special Education, 49, 157–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466914554298

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Bambara, L. M., Goh, A., Kern, L., & Caskie, G. (2012). Perceived barriers and enablers to implementing individualized positive behavior interventions and supports in school settings. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 14(4), 228–240. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300712437219

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Bambara, L. M., Nonnemacher, S., & Kern, L. (2009). Sustaining school-based individualized positive behavior support: Perceived barriers and enablers. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 11(3), 161–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bertram, R. M., Blase, K. A., & Fixsen, D. L. (2015). Improving programs and outcomes: Implementation frameworks and organization change. Research on Social Work Practice, 25(4), 477–487. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731514537687

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blase, K., Fixsen, D., Sims, B., & Ward, C. (2015). Implementation science: Changing hearts, minds, behavior, and systems to improve educational outcomes. The Wing Institute

  • Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

  • Carr, J. E., Wilder, D. A., Majdalany, L., Mathisen, D., & Strain, L. A. (2013). An assessment-based solution to a human-service employee performance problem. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 6(1), 16–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391789

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • *Childs, K. E., Kincaid, D., & Peshak George, H. (2010). A model for statewide evaluation of a universal positive behavior support initiative. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 12(4), 198–210. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300709340699

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Chitiyo, M., & Wheeler, J. J. (2009). Challenges faced by school teachers in implementing positive behavior support in their school systems. Remedial & Special Education, 30(1), 58–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Coffey, J. H., & Horner, R. H. (2012). The sustainability of schoolwide positive behavior interventions and supports. Exceptional Children, 78(4), 407–422. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291207800402

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collier-Meek, M. A., Sanetti, L. M. H., & Fallon, L. M. (2017). Incorporating applied behavior analysis to assess and support educators’ treatment integrity. Psychology in the Schools, 54(4), 446–460. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, B. G., & Odom, S. L. (2013). Evidence-based practices and implementation science in special education. Exceptional Children, 79(2), 135–144. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291307900201

  • Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2020). Applied behavior analysis (3rd ed.) Pearson.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Eccles, M. P., & Mittman, B. S. (2006). Welcome to implementation science. Implementation Science, 1(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-1-1

  • *Elder, K. I., & Prochnow, J. E. (2016). PB4L school-wide: What will support the sustainability of the initiative? New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 51(1), 83–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40841-016-0036-1

  • Evanovich, L. L., & Scott, T. M. (2016). Facilitating PBIS implementation: An administrator’s guide to presenting the logic and steps to faculty and staff. Beyond Behavior, 25(1), 4–8. https://doi.org/10.1177/107429561602500102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Feuerborn, L. L., Tyre, A. D., & Beaudoin, K. (2018). Classified staff perceptions of behavior and discipline: Implications for schoolwide positive behavior supports. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 20(2), 101–112. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300717733975

  • *Feuerborn, L. L., Wallace, C., & Tyre, A. D. (2016). A qualitative analysis of middle and high school teacher perceptions of schoolwide positive behavior supports. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 18, 219–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300716632591

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelstein, S., Sharma, U., & Furlonger, B. (2019). The inclusive practices of classroom teachers: A scoping review and thematic analysis. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 25(6), 735–762. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2019.1572232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fixsen, D. L., Blase, K., Metz, A., & Van Dyke, M. (2013). Statewide implementation of evidence-based programs. Exceptional Children, 79(2), 213–230. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291307900206

  • *Flannery, K. B., Sugai, G., & Anderson, C. M. (2009). School-wide positive behavior support in high school: Early lessons learned. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 11(3), 177–185. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300708316257

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flower, A., McKenna, J. W., & Haring, C. D. (2017). Behavior and classroom management: Are teacher preparation programs really preparing our teachers? Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children & Youth, 61(2), 163–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2016.1231109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, J., Simonsen, B., Goodman, S., Mitchell, B., George, H. P., Swain-Bradway, J., Lane, K. L., Sprague, J. R., & Putnam, B. (2017). PBIS technical brief on systems to support teachers’ implementation of positive classroom behavior support. PBIS Center.

  • Fullan, M. (2016). The NEW meaning of educational change (5th ed.). Teachers College Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gage, N. A., Cook, B. G., & Reichow, B. (2017a). Publication bias in special education meta-analyses. Exceptional Children, 83(4), 428–445. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402917691016

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gage, N. A., Leite, W., Childs, K., & Kincaid, D. (2017b). Average treatment effect of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports on school-level academic achievement in Florida. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 19, 158–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300717693556

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gage, N. A., Lee, A., Grasley-Boy, N., ∓ Peshak George, H. (2018). The impact of school-wide positive behavior interventions and supports on school suspensions: A statewide quasi-experimental analysis. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 20(4), 217–226. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300718768204

  • *George, H. P., Cox, K. E., Minch, D., & Sandomierski, T. (2018). District practices associated with successful SWPBIS implementation. Behavioral Disorders, 43(3), 393–406. https://doi.org/10.1177/0198742917753612

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilmour, A. F., & Wehby, J. H. (2020). The association between teaching students with disabilities and teacher turnover. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(5), 1042–1060. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000394

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goss, P., Sonnemann, J., & Griffiths, K. (2017). Engaging students: Creating classrooms that improve learning. Grattan Institute.

  • Gregory, A., Skiba, R. J., & Noguera, P. A. (2010). The achievement gap and the discipline gap: Two sides of the same coin? Educational Researcher, 39(1), 59–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heffernan, A., Longmuir, F., Bright, D., & Kim, M. (2019). Perceptions of teachers and teaching in Australia. Monash University, Melbourne

  • Hemphill, S. A., Broderick, D. J., Heerde, J., & A. (2017). Positive associations between school suspension and student problem behaviour: Recent Australian findings. Trends and Issues in Crime & Criminal Justice, 531, 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hepburn, L., & Beamish, W. (2019). Towards implementation of evidence-based practices for classroom management in Australia: A review of research. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 44, 6. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2018v44n2.6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Horner, R. H., Kincaid, D., Sugai, G., Lewis, T., Eber, L., Barrett, S., Dickey, C. R., Richter, M., Sullivan, E., Boezio, C., Algozzine, B., Reynolds, H., & Johnson, N. (2014). Scaling up school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports experiences of seven states with documented success. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 16(4), 197–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300713503685

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horner, R. H., Sugai, G., & Fixsen, D. L. (2017). Implementing effective educational practices at scales of social importance. Clinical Child & Family Psychology Review, 20(1), 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-017-0224-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Kincaid, D., Childs, K., Blase, K. A., & Wallace, F. (2007). Identifying barriers and facilitators in implementing schoolwide positive behavior support. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 9(3), 174–184. https://doi.org/10.1177/10983007070090030501

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kincaid, D., & Horner, R. (2017). Changing systems to scale up an evidence-based educational intervention. Evidence-Based Communication Assessment & Intervention, 11(3–4), 99–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/17489539.2017.1376383

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Kittelman, A., Strickland-Cohen, M. K., Pinkelman, S. E., & McIntosh, K. (2020). Variables contributing to abandonment and readoption of SWPBIS. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 22(2), 67–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300719888748

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Lohrmann, S., Forman, S., Martin, S., & Palmieri, M. (2008). Understanding school personnel’s resistance to adopting schoolwide positive behavior support at a universal level of intervention. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 10(4), 256–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300708318963

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Mathews, S., McIntosh, K., Frank, J. L., & May, S. L. (2014). Critical features predicting sustained implementation of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 16(3), 168–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300713484065

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDaniel, S., Kim, S., Kwon, D., & Choi, Y.-J. (2018). Stakeholder perceptions of contextual factors related to PBIS implementation in high need schools. Journal of Children and Poverty, 24(2), 109–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/10796126.2018.1518777

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McHugh, M. L. (2012). Interrater reliability: The kappa statistic. Biochemia Medica, 22, 276–282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McIntosh, K., Bennett, J., & Price, K. (2011a). Evaluation of social and academic effects of school-wide positive behavior support in a Canadian school district. Exceptionality Education International, 21(1), 46–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McIntosh, K., Filter, K. J., Bennett, J. L., Ryan, C., & Sugai, G. (2010). Principles of sustainable prevention: Designing scale-up of school-wide positive behavior support to promote durable systems. Psychology in the Schools, 47(1), 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20448

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *McIntosh, K., Kim, J., Mercer, S. H., Strickland-Cohen, M. K., & Horner, R. H. (2015). Variables associated with enhanced sustainability of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 40(3), 184–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534508414556503

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McIntosh, K., MacKay, L. D., Hume, A. E., Doolittle, J., Vincent, C. G., Horner, R. H., & Ervin, R. A. (2011b). Development and initial validation of a measure to assess factors related to sustainability of school-wide positive behavior support. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 13(4), 208–218. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300710385348

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *McIntosh, K., Mercer, S. H., Hume, A. E., Frank, J. L., Turri, M. G., & Mathews, S. (2013). Factors related to sustained implementation of schoolwide positive behavior support. Exceptional Children, 79, 293–311.

    Google Scholar 

  • *McIntosh, K., Mercer, S. H., Nese, R. N. T., & Ghemraoui, A. (2016a). Identifying and predicting distinct patterns of implementation in a school-wide behavior support framework. Prevention Science, 17(8), 992–1001. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-016-0700-1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *McIntosh, K., Mercer, S. H., Nese, R. N. T., Strickland-Cohen, M. K., & Hoselton, R. (2016b). Predictors of sustained implementation of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 18(4), 209–218. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300715599737

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *McIntosh, K., Mercer, S. H., Nese, R. N. T., Strickland-Cohen, M. K., Kittelman, A., Hoselton, R., & Horner, R. H. (2018). Factors predicting sustained implementation of a universal behavior support framework. Educational Researcher, 47, 0013189X18776975. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X18776975

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *McIntosh, K., Predy, L. K., Upreti, G., Hume, A. E., Turri, M. G., & Mathews, S. (2014). Perceptions of contextual features related to implementation and sustainability of school-wide positive behavior support. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 16, 31–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300712470723

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Nese, R., McIntosh, K., Nese, J., Hoselton, R., Bloom, J., Johnson, N., Richter, M., Phillips, D., & Ghemraoui, A. (2016). Predicting abandonment of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports. Behavioral Disorders, 42(1), 261–270. https://doi.org/10.17988/BD-15-95.1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • OSEP Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports. (2015). Positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) implementation blueprint: Part 1—Foundations and Supporting Information. University of Oregon. www.pbis.org

  • *Pas, E. T., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2012). Examining the association between implementation and outcomes. Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research, 39(4), 417–433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11414-012-9290-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Pas, E. T., Waasdorp, T. E., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2015). Examining contextual influences on classroom-based implementation of positive behavior support strategies: Findings from a randomized controlled effectiveness trial. Prevention Science, 16(8), 1096–1106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-014-0492-0

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • *Pinkelman, S. E., Mcintosh, K., Rasplica, C. K., Berg, T., & Strickland-Cohen, M. K. (2015). Perceived enablers and barriers related to sustainability of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports. Behavioral Disorders, 40(3), 171–183. https://doi.org/10.17988/0198-7429-40.3.171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poed, S., & Whitefield, P. (2020). Developments in the implementation of positive behavioral interventions and supports in Australian schools. Intervention in School & Clinic, 56(1), 56–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451220910742

  • Reinke, W. M., Stormont, M., Herman, K. C., Wang, Z., Newcomer, L., & King, K. (2014). Use of coaching and behavior support planning for students with disruptive behavior within a universal classroom management program. Journal of Emotional & Behavioral Disorders, 22(2), 74–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1063426613519820

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Savage, C., Lewis, J., & Colless, N. (2011). Essentials for implementation: Six years of school wide positive behaviour support in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 40(1), 29.

    Google Scholar 

  • *Schaper, A., McIntosh, K., & Hoselton, R. (2016). Within-year fidelity growth of SWPBIS during installation and initial implementation. School Psychology Quarterly, 31(3), 358–368. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000125

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simonsen, B., & Sugai, G. (2019). School-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports: A systems-level application of behavioral principles. In S. G. Little & A. Akin-Little (Eds.), Behavioral interventions in schools: Evidence-based positive strategies (2nd ed.; pp. 35–60). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000126-000

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Simonsen, B., MacSuga-Gage, A. S., Briere, D. E., Freeman, J., Myers, D., Scott, T. M., & Sugai, G. (2014). Multitiered support framework for teachers’ classroom-management practices: Overview and case study of building the triangle for teachers. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 16(3), 179–190. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300713484062

  • Simonsen, B., Freeman, J., Swain-Bradway, J., George, H. P., Putnam, R., Lane, K. L., Sprague, J., & Hershfeldt, P. (2019). Using data to support educators’ implementation of positive classroom behavior support (PCBS) practices. Education & Treatment of Children, 42(2), 265–289. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2019.0013

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sugai, G., & Horner, R. H. (2020). Sustaining and scaling positive behavioral interventions and supports: Implementation drivers, outcomes, and considerations. Exceptional Children, 86, 120–136. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402919855331

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sugai, G., Simonsen, B., Freeman, J., & La Salle, T. (2016). Capacity development and multi-tiered systems of support: Guiding principles. Australian Journal of Special Education, 40, 80–98. https://doi.org/10.1017/jse.2016.11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, A., Johnson, B., Owens, L., & Conway, R. (2014). Punish them or engage them? Teachers’ views of unproductive student behaviour in the classroom. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 39(6), n6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turri, M. G., Mercer, S. H., McIntosh, K., Nese, R. N. T., Strickland-Cohen, M. K., & Hoselton, R. (2016). Examining barriers to sustained implementation of school-wide prevention practices. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 42(1), 6–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534508416634624

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • *Tyre, A., Feuerborn, L., Beaudoin, K., & Bruce, J. (2020). Middle school teachers’ concerns for implementing the principles of SWPBIS. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 22, 93–104. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300719867858

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yeung, A. S., Craven, R. G., Mooney, M., Tracey, D., Barker, K., Power, A., Dobia, B., Chen, Z., Schofield, J., Whitefield, P., & Lewis, T. J. (2016). Positive behavior interventions: The issue of sustainability of positive effects. Educational Psychology Review, 28, 145–170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9305-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This research was supported by an Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarship, as well as Monash University in the form of the Graduate Research Completion Award.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Education, Monash University, 19 Ancora Imparo Way, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia

    Russell A. Fox, Erin S. Leif, Dennis W. Moore, Brett Furlonger & Umesh Sharma

  2. School of Psychology, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand

    Angelika Anderson

Authors
  1. Russell A. Fox
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Erin S. Leif
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Dennis W. Moore
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Brett Furlonger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Angelika Anderson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Umesh Sharma
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Russell A. Fox.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval

No ethics approval was required for the current research

Informed consent

No human participants were involved in the current research.

Additional information

We thank Tsuyoshi Imasaka and Joanne Braden for their assistance in this research.

Supplementary Information

ESM 1

(DOCX 17 kb)

ESM 2

(JPG 107 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Fox, R.A., Leif, E.S., Moore, D.W. et al. A Systematic Review of the Facilitators and Barriers to the Sustained Implementation of School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. Educ. Treat. Child. 45, 105–126 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43494-021-00056-0

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43494-021-00056-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation