Abstract
Adult nephrologists often look after patients who have been diagnosed with kidney disease in childhood. This does present unique challenges to the adult nephrologist, who may be unfamiliar with the underlying cause of kidney disease as well as the complications of chronic kidney disease (CKD) that may have accumulated during childhood. This review discusses common causes of childhood CKD, in particular congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT), autosomal dominant tubulointerstitial kidney disease (ADTKD), polycystic kidney disease, hereditary stone disease, nephrotic syndrome and atypical haemolytic uraemic syndrome. The long-term consequences of childhood CKD, such as the cardiovascular consequences, cognition and education as well as bone health, nutrition and growth are also discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Weaver DJ, Somers MJG, Martz K, Mitsnefes MM (2017) Clinical outcomes and survival in pediatric patients initiating chronic dialysis: a report of the NAPRTCS registry. Pediatr Nephrol 32:2319–2330
Ardissino G, Dacco V, Testa S, Bonaudo R, Claris-Appiani A, Taioli E et al (2003) Epidemiology of chronic renal failure in children: data from the ItalKid Project. Pediatrics 111:e382–e387
Orr NI, McDonald SP, McTaggart S, Henning P, Craig JC (2009) Frequency, etiology and treatment of childhood end-stage kidney disease in Australia and New Zealand. Pediatr Nephrol 24:1719–1726
Hamilton AJ, Braddon F, Casula A, Lewis M, Mallett T, Marks SD et al (2017) UK Renal Registry 19th Annual Report: Chapter 4 Demography of the UK paediatric renal replacement therapy population in 2015. Nephron 137(Suppl 1):103–116
Hattori M, Sako M, Kaneko T, Ashida A, Matsunaga A, Igarashi T et al (2015) End-stage renal disease in Japanese children: a nationwide survey during 2006-2011. Clin Exp Nephrol 19:933–938
Bonilla-Felix M, Parra C, Dajani T, Ferris M, Swinford RD, Portman RJ et al (1999) Changing patterns in the histopathology of idiopathic nephrotic syndrome in children. Kidney Int 55:1885–1890
Srivastava T, Simon SD, Alon US (1999) High incidence of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis in nephrotic syndrome of childhood. Pediatr Nephrol 13:13–18
Filler G, Young E, Geier P, Carpenter B, Drukker A, Feber J (2003) Is there really an increase in non-minimal change nephrotic syndrome in children? Am J Kidney Dis 42:1107–1113
Plumb L, Casula A, Pyart R, Evans KM, Inward C, Medcalf J et al (2020) The 21st UK Renal Registry Annual Report: a summary of analyses of paediatric data in 2017. Nephron 144:67–71
van der Heijden BJ, van Dijk PC, Verrier-Jones K, Jager KJ, Briggs JD (2004) Renal replacement therapy in children: data from 12 registries in Europe. Pediatr Nephrol 19:213–221
McDonald SP, Craig JC, Australian and New Zealand Paediatric Nephrology Association (2004) Long-term survival of children with end-stage renal disease. N Engl J Med 350:2654–2662
Groothoff JW, Gruppen MP, Offringa M, Hutten J, Lilien MR, Van De Kar NJ et al (2002) Mortality and causes of death of end-stage renal disease in children: a Dutch cohort study. Kidney Int 61:621–629
Kramer A, Stel VS, Tizard J, Verrina E, Ronnholm K, Palsson R et al (2009) Characteristics and survival of young adults who started renal replacement therapy during childhood. Nephrol Dial Transplant 24:926–933
Loane M, Dolk H, Kelly A, Teljeur C, Greenlees R, Densem J et al (2011) Paper 4: EUROCAT statistical monitoring: identification and investigation of ten year trends of congenital anomalies in Europe. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 91(Suppl 1):S31–S43
Wuhl E, van Stralen KJ, Verrina E, Bjerre A, Wanner C, Heaf JG et al (2013) Timing and outcome of renal replacement therapy in patients with congenital malformations of the kidney and urinary tract. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 8:67–74
Fathallah-Shaykh SA, Flynn JT, Pierce CB, Abraham AG, Blydt-Hansen TD, Massengill SF et al (2015) Progression of pediatric CKD of nonglomerular origin in the CKiD cohort. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 10:571–577
Wood D (2014) Adolescent urology: developing lifelong care for congenital anomalies. Nat Rev Urol 11:289–296
Sanna-Cherchi S, Ravani P, Corbani V, Parodi S, Haupt R, Piaggio G et al (2009) Renal outcome in patients with congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract. Kidney Int 76:528–533
van der Ven AT, Vivante A, Hildebrandt F (2018) Novel insights into the pathogenesis of monogenic congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract. J Am Soc Nephrol 29:36–50
Ichikawa I, Kuwayama F, Pope JC, Stephens FD, Miyazaki Y (2002) Paradigm shift from classic anatomic theories to contemporary cell biological views of CAKUT. Kidney Int 61:889–898
Sanna-Cherchi S, Westland R, Ghiggeri GM, Gharavi AG (2018) Genetic basis of human congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract. J Clin Invest 128:4–15
Groopman EE, Marasa M, Cameron-Christie S, Petrovski S, Aggarwal VS, Milo-Rasouly H et al (2019) Diagnostic utility of exome sequencing for kidney disease. N Engl J Med 380:142–151
van der Ven AT, Connaughton DM, Ityel H, Mann N, Nakayama M, Chen J et al (2018) Whole-exome sequencing identifies causative mutations in families with congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract. J Am Soc Nephrol 29:2348–2361
Verbitsky M, Westland R, Perez A, Kiryluk K, Liu Q, Krithivasan P et al (2019) The copy number variation landscape of congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract. Nat Genet 51:117–127
Barker DJ (2006) Adult consequences of fetal growth restriction. Clin Obstet Gynecol 49:270–283
Hinchliffe SA, Lynch MR, Sargent PH, Howard CV, Van Velzen D (1992) The effect of intrauterine growth retardation on the development of renal nephrons. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 99:296–301
Faure A, Bouty A, Caruana G, Williams L, Burgess T, Wong MN et al (2016) DNA copy number variants: a potentially useful predictor of early onset renal failure in boys with posterior urethral valves. J Pediatr Urol 12(227):e1–e7
Yulia A, Winyard P (2018) Management of antenatally detected kidney malformations. Early Hum Dev 126:38–46
Lee KH, Gee HY, Shin JI (2017) Genetics of vesicoureteral reflux and congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract. Investig Clin Urol 58(Suppl 1):S4–S13
Hodges SJ, Patel B, McLorie G, Atala A (2009) Posterior urethral valves. ScientificWorldJournal 9:1119–1126
Parkhouse HF, Barratt TM, Dillon MJ, Duffy PG, Fay J, Ransley PG et al (1988) Long-term outcome of boys with posterior urethral valves. Br J Urol 62:59–62
Brownlee E, Wragg R, Robb A, Chandran H, Knight M, McCarthy L et al (2019) Current epidemiology and antenatal presentation of posterior urethral valves: outcome of BAPS CASS National Audit. J Pediatr Surg 54:318–321
Kovell RC, Skokan AJ, Wood DN (2018) Transitional urology. Urol Clin North Am 45:601–610
Heikkila J, Holmberg C, Kyllonen L, Rintala R, Taskinen S (2011) Long-term risk of end stage renal disease in patients with posterior urethral valves. J Urol 186:2392–2396
Taskinen S, Heikkila J, Santtila P, Rintala R (2012) Posterior urethral valves and adult sexual function. BJU Int 110:E392–E396
Holmdahl G, Sillen U (2005) Boys with posterior urethral valves: outcome concerning renal function, bladder function and paternity at ages 31 to 44 years. J Urol 174:1031–1034 discussion 1034
Wong J, Punwani V, Lai C, Chia J, Hutson JM (2016) Why do undescended testes and posterior urethral valve occur together? Pediatr Surg Int 32:509–514
Virtanen HE, Bjerknes R, Cortes D, Jorgensen N, Rajpert-De Meyts E, Thorsson AV et al (2007) Cryptorchidism: classification, prevalence and long-term consequences. Acta Paediatr 96:611–616
Williams G, Fletcher JT, Alexander SI, Craig JC (2008) Vesicoureteral reflux. J Am Soc Nephrol 19:847–862
Brenner BM, Lawler EV, Mackenzie HS (1996) The hyperfiltration theory: a paradigm shift in nephrology. Kidney Int 49:1774–1777
Corbani V, Ghiggeri GM, Sanna-Cherchi S (2011) Congenital solitary functioning kidneys: which ones warrant follow-up into adult life? Nephrol Dial Transplant 26:1458–1460
Westland R, Kurvers RA, van Wijk JA, Schreuder MF (2013) Risk factors for renal injury in children with a solitary functioning kidney. Pediatrics 131:e478–e485
Westland R, Schreuder MF, van Goudoever JB, Sanna-Cherchi S, van Wijk JA (2014) Clinical implications of the solitary functioning kidney. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 9:978–986
Biers SM, Venn SN, Greenwell TJ (2012) The past, present and future of augmentation cystoplasty. BJU Int 109:1280–1293
Vivante A, Kohl S, Hwang DY, Dworschak GC, Hildebrandt F (2014) Single-gene causes of congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT) in humans. Pediatr Nephrol 29:695–704
Winyard P, Chitty LS (2008) Dysplastic kidneys. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 13:142–151
Luke PP, Herz DB, Bellinger MF, Chakrabarti P, Vivas CA, Scantlebury VP et al (2003) Long-term results of pediatric renal transplantation into a dysfunctional lower urinary tract. Transplantation 76:1578–1582
McKay AM, Kim S, Kennedy SE (2019) Long-term outcome of kidney transplantation in patients with congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract. Pediatr Nephrol 34:2409–2415
Thomas R, Sanna-Cherchi S, Warady BA, Furth SL, Kaskel FJ, Gharavi AG (2011) HNF1B and PAX2 mutations are a common cause of renal hypodysplasia in the CKiD cohort. Pediatr Nephrol 26:897–903
Madariaga L, Moriniere V, Jeanpierre C, Bouvier R, Loget P, Martinovic J et al (2013) Severe prenatal renal anomalies associated with mutations in HNF1B or PAX2 genes. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 8:1179–1187
Hwang DY, Dworschak GC, Kohl S, Saisawat P, Vivante A, Hilger AC et al (2014) Mutations in 12 known dominant disease-causing genes clarify many congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract. Kidney Int 85:1429–1433
Weber S, Moriniere V, Knuppel T, Charbit M, Dusek J, Ghiggeri GM et al (2006) Prevalence of mutations in renal developmental genes in children with renal hypodysplasia: results of the ESCAPE study. J Am Soc Nephrol 17:2864–2870
Sanna-Cherchi S, Kiryluk K, Burgess KE, Bodria M, Sampson MG, Hadley D et al (2012) Copy-number disorders are a common cause of congenital kidney malformations. Am J Hum Genet 91:987–997
Bekheirnia MR, Bekheirnia N, Bainbridge MN, Gu S, Coban Akdemir ZH, Gambin T et al (2017) Whole-exome sequencing in the molecular diagnosis of individuals with congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract and identification of a new causative gene. Genet Med 19:412–420
Eckardt KU, Alper SL, Antignac C, Bleyer AJ, Chauveau D, Dahan K et al (2015) Autosomal dominant tubulointerstitial kidney disease: diagnosis, classification, and management--a KDIGO consensus report. Kidney Int 88:676–683
Sikri KL, Foster CL, MacHugh N, Marshall RD (1981) Localization of Tamm-Horsfall glycoprotein in the human kidney using immuno-fluorescence and immuno-electron microscopical techniques. J Anat 132:597–605
Bollee G, Dahan K, Flamant M, Moriniere V, Pawtowski A, Heidet L et al (2011) Phenotype and outcome in hereditary tubulointerstitial nephritis secondary to UMOD mutations. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 6:2429–2438
Kirby A, Gnirke A, Jaffe DB, Baresova V, Pochet N, Blumenstiel B et al (2013) Mutations causing medullary cystic kidney disease type 1 lie in a large VNTR in MUC1 missed by massively parallel sequencing. Nat Genet 45:299–303
Bleyer AJ, Kmoch S, Antignac C, Robins V, Kidd K, Kelsoe JR et al (2014) Variable clinical presentation of an MUC1 mutation causing medullary cystic kidney disease type 1. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 9:527–535
Lindner TH, Njolstad PR, Horikawa Y, Bostad L, Bell GI, Sovik O (1999) A novel syndrome of diabetes mellitus, renal dysfunction and genital malformation associated with a partial deletion of the pseudo-POU domain of hepatocyte nuclear factor-1beta. Hum Mol Genet 8:2001–2008
Adalat S, Hayes WN, Bryant WA, Booth J, Woolf AS, Kleta R et al (2019) HNF1B mutations are associated with a Gitelman-like tubulopathy that develops during childhood. Kidney Int Rep 4:1304–1311
Bellanne-Chantelot C, Chauveau D, Gautier JF, Dubois-Laforgue D, Clauin S, Beaufils S et al (2004) Clinical spectrum associated with hepatocyte nuclear factor-1beta mutations. Ann Intern Med 140:510–517
Faguer S, Decramer S, Chassaing N, Bellanne-Chantelot C, Calvas P, Beaufils S et al (2011) Diagnosis, management, and prognosis of HNF1B nephropathy in adulthood. Kidney Int 80:768–776
Oram RA, Edghill EL, Blackman J, Taylor MJ, Kay T, Flanagan SE et al (2010) Mutations in the hepatocyte nuclear factor-1beta (HNF1B) gene are common with combined uterine and renal malformations but are not found with isolated uterine malformations. Am J Obstet Gynecol 203(364):e1–e5
Bolar NA, Golzio C, Zivna M, Hayot G, Van Hemelrijk C, Schepers D et al (2016) Heterozygous loss-of-function SEC61A1 mutations cause autosomal-dominant tubulo-interstitial and glomerulocystic kidney disease with anemia. Am J Hum Genet 99:174–187
Devuyst O, Olinger E, Weber S, Eckardt KU, Kmoch S, Rampoldi L et al (2019) Autosomal dominant tubulointerstitial kidney disease. Nat Rev Dis Primers 5:60
Zerres K, Hansmann M, Mallmann R, Gembruch U (1988) Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease. Problems of prenatal diagnosis. Prenat Diagn 8:215–229
Sharp AM, Messiaen LM, Page G, Antignac C, Gubler MC, Onuchic LF et al (2005) Comprehensive genomic analysis of PKHD1 mutations in ARPKD cohorts. J Med Genet 42:336–349
Dell KM (2011) The spectrum of polycystic kidney disease in children. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 18:339–347
Sweeney WE Jr, Avner ED (2011) Diagnosis and management of childhood polycystic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 26:675–692
Guay-Woodford LM, Desmond RA (2003) Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease: the clinical experience in North America. Pediatrics 111:1072–1080
Adeva M, El-Youssef M, Rossetti S, Kamath PS, Kubly V, Consugar MB et al (2006) Clinical and molecular characterization defines a broadened spectrum of autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD). Medicine (Baltimore) 85:1–21
Telega G, Cronin D, Avner ED (2013) New approaches to the autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease patient with dual kidney-liver complications. Pediatr Transplant 17:328–335
Wehrman A, Kriegermeier A, Wen J (2017) Diagnosis and management of hepatobiliary complications in autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease. Front Pediatr 5:124
Gunay-Aygun M, Turkbey BI, Bryant J, Daryanani KT, Gerstein MT, Piwnica-Worms K et al (2011) Hepatorenal findings in obligate heterozygotes for autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease. Mol Genet Metab 104:677–681
Buscher R, Buscher AK, Weber S, Mohr J, Hegen B, Vester U et al (2014) Clinical manifestations of autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD): kidney-related and non-kidney-related phenotypes. Pediatr Nephrol 29:1915–1925
Bergmann C, Senderek J, Windelen E, Kupper F, Middeldorf I, Schneider F et al (2005) Clinical consequences of PKHD1 mutations in 164 patients with autosomal-recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD). Kidney Int 67:829–848
Porath B, Gainullin VG, Cornec-Le Gall E, Dillinger EK, Heyer CM, Hopp K et al (2016) Mutations in GANAB, encoding the glucosidase IIalpha subunit, cause autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney and liver disease. Am J Hum Genet 98:1193–1207
Cornec-Le Gall E, Audrezet MP, Chen JM, Hourmant M, Morin MP, Perrichot R et al (2013) Type of PKD1 mutation influences renal outcome in ADPKD. J Am Soc Nephrol 24:1006–1013
Cole BR, Conley SB, Stapleton FB (1987) Polycystic kidney disease in the first year of life. J Pediatr 111:693–699
McConnachie DJ, Stow JL, Mallett AJ (2020) Ciliopathies and the kidney: a review. Am J Kidney Dis 77:410–419
Chebib FT, Torres VE (2018) Recent advances in the management of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 13:1765–1776
Luo F, Tao YH (2018) Nephronophthisis: a review of genotype-phenotype correlation. Nephrology (Carlton) 23:904–911
Rule AD, Krambeck AE, Lieske JC (2011) Chronic kidney disease in kidney stone formers. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 6:2069–2075
Hoppe B, Beck BB, Milliner DS (2009) The primary hyperoxalurias. Kidney Int 75:1264–1271
Edvardsson VO, Goldfarb DS, Lieske JC, Beara-Lasic L, Anglani F, Milliner DS et al (2013) Hereditary causes of kidney stones and chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 28:1923–1942
Hoppe B, Langman CB (2003) A United States survey on diagnosis, treatment, and outcome of primary hyperoxaluria. Pediatr Nephrol 18:986–991
Nasr SH, Sethi S, Cornell LD, Milliner DS, Boelkins M, Broviac J et al (2010) Crystalline nephropathy due to 2,8-dihydroxyadeninuria: an under-recognized cause of irreversible renal failure. Nephrol Dial Transplant 25:1909–1915
Cochran B, Kovacikova T, Hodanova K, Zivna M, Hnizda A, Niehaus AG et al (2018) Chronic tubulointerstitial kidney disease in untreated adenine phosphoribosyl transferase (APRT) deficiency: a case report. Clin Nephrol 90:296–301
Evan AP, Coe FL, Lingeman JE, Shao Y, Matlaga BR, Kim SC et al (2006) Renal crystal deposits and histopathology in patients with cystine stones. Kidney Int 69:2227–2235
Lambert EH, Asplin JR, Herrell SD, Miller NL (2010) Analysis of 24-hour urine parameters as it relates to age of onset of cystine stone formation. J Endourol 24:1179–1182
Wrong OM, Norden AG, Feest TG (1994) Dent’s disease; a familial proximal renal tubular syndrome with low-molecular-weight proteinuria, hypercalciuria, nephrocalcinosis, metabolic bone disease, progressive renal failure and a marked male predominance. QJM 87:473–493
Hudson BG, Tryggvason K, Sundaramoorthy M, Neilson EG (2003) Alport’s syndrome, Goodpasture’s syndrome, and type IV collagen. N Engl J Med 348:2543–2556
Hertz JM, Thomassen M, Storey H, Flinter F (2015) Clinical utility gene card for: Alport syndrome - update 2014. Eur J Hum Genet 23(9)
Savige J (2014) Alport syndrome: its effects on the glomerular filtration barrier and implications for future treatment. J Physiol 592:4013–4023
Gross O, Licht C, Anders HJ, Hoppe B, Beck B, Tonshoff B et al (2012) Early angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in Alport syndrome delays renal failure and improves life expectancy. Kidney Int 81:494–501
Kashtan CE, Ding J, Gregory M, Gross O, Heidet L, Knebelmann B et al (2013) Clinical practice recommendations for the treatment of Alport syndrome: a statement of the Alport Syndrome Research Collaborative. Pediatr Nephrol 28:5–11
Matthaiou A, Poulli T, Deltas C (2020) Prevalence of clinical, pathological and molecular features of glomerular basement membrane nephropathy caused by COL4A3 or COL4A4 mutations: a systematic review. Clin Kidney J 13:1025–1036
Rheault MN, Kren SM, Hartich LA, Wall M, Thomas W, Mesa HA et al (2010) X-inactivation modifies disease severity in female carriers of murine X-linked Alport syndrome. Nephrol Dial Transplant 25:764–769
Savige J, Ariani F, Mari F, Bruttini M, Renieri A, Gross O et al (2019) Expert consensus guidelines for the genetic diagnosis of Alport syndrome. Pediatr Nephrol 34:1175–1189
Kashtan CE, Ding J, Garosi G, Heidet L, Massella L, Nakanishi K et al (2018) Alport syndrome: a unified classification of genetic disorders of collagen IV alpha345: a position paper of the Alport Syndrome Classification Working Group. Kidney Int 93:1045–1051
Savige J, Colville D, Rheault M, Gear S, Lennon R, Lagas S et al (2016) Alport syndrome in women and girls. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 11:1713–1720
Kashtan CE (2009) Familial hematuria. Pediatr Nephrol 24:1951–1958
Savige J, Gregory M, Gross O, Kashtan C, Ding J, Flinter F (2013) Expert guidelines for the management of Alport syndrome and thin basement membrane nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 24:364–375
Hood JC, Dowling J, Bertram JF, Young RJ, Huxtable C, Robinson W et al (2002) Correlation of histopathological features and renal impairment in autosomal dominant Alport syndrome in Bull Terriers. Nephrol Dial Transplant 17:1897–1908
Nozu K, Nakanishi K, Abe Y, Udagawa T, Okada S, Okamoto T et al (2019) A review of clinical characteristics and genetic backgrounds in Alport syndrome. Clin Exp Nephrol 23:158–168
Mencarelli MA, Heidet L, Storey H, van Geel M, Knebelmann B, Fallerini C et al (2015) Evidence of digenic inheritance in Alport syndrome. J Med Genet 52:163–174
Eddy AA, Symons JM (2003) Nephrotic syndrome in childhood. Lancet 362:629–639
Vivarelli M, Massella L, Ruggiero B, Emma F (2017) Minimal change disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 12:332–345
Fakhouri F, Bocquet N, Taupin P, Presne C, Gagnadoux MF, Landais P et al (2003) Steroid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome: from childhood to adulthood. Am J Kidney Dis 41:550–557
Ding WY, Koziell A, McCarthy HJ, Bierzynska A, Bhagavatula MK, Dudley JA et al (2014) Initial steroid sensitivity in children with steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome predicts post-transplant recurrence. J Am Soc Nephrol 25:1342–1348
Hinkes BG, Mucha B, Vlangos CN, Gbadegesin R, Liu J, Hasselbacher K et al (2007) Nephrotic syndrome in the first year of life: two thirds of cases are caused by mutations in 4 genes (NPHS1, NPHS2, WT1, and LAMB2). Pediatrics 119:e907–e919
Sadowski CE, Lovric S, Ashraf S, Pabst WL, Gee HY, Kohl S et al (2015) A single-gene cause in 29.5% of cases of steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome. J Am Soc Nephrol 26:1279–1289
Yao T, Udwan K, John R, Rana A, Haghighi A, Xu L et al (2019) Integration of genetic testing and pathology for the diagnosis of adults with FSGS. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 14:213–223
Bierzynska A, McCarthy HJ, Soderquest K, Sen ES, Colby E, Ding WY et al (2017) Genomic and clinical profiling of a national nephrotic syndrome cohort advocates a precision medicine approach to disease management. Kidney Int 91:937–947
Trautmann A, Schnaidt S, Lipska-Zietkiewicz BS, Bodria M, Ozaltin F, Emma F et al (2017) Long-term outcome of steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome in children. J Am Soc Nephrol 28:3055–3065
Tullus K, Webb H, Bagga A (2018) Management of steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome in children and adolescents. Lancet Child Adolesc Health 2:880–890
Kavanagh D, Goodship TH, Richards A (2013) Atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome. Semin Nephrol 33:508–530
Brocklebank V, Kumar G, Howie AJ, Chandar J, Milford DV, Craze J et al (2020) Long-term outcomes and response to treatment in diacylglycerol kinase epsilon nephropathy. Kidney Int 97:1260–1274
Bu F, Maga T, Meyer NC, Wang K, Thomas CP, Nester CM et al (2014) Comprehensive genetic analysis of complement and coagulation genes in atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome. J Am Soc Nephrol 25:55–64
Fakhouri F, Zuber J, Fremeaux-Bacchi V, Loirat C (2017) Haemolytic uraemic syndrome. Lancet 390:681–696
Loirat C, Fremeaux-Bacchi V (2011) Atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome. Orphanet J Rare Dis 6:60
Cody EM, Dixon BP (2019) Hemolytic uremic syndrome. Pediatr Clin North Am 66:235–246
Fujisawa M, Kato H, Yoshida Y, Usui T, Takata M, Fujimoto M et al (2018) Clinical characteristics and genetic backgrounds of Japanese patients with atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome. Clin Exp Nephrol 22:1088–1099
Oh J, Wunsch R, Turzer M, Bahner M, Raggi P, Querfeld U et al (2002) Advanced coronary and carotid arteriopathy in young adults with childhood-onset chronic renal failure. Circulation 106:100–105
Schaefer F, Doyon A, Azukaitis K, Bayazit A, Canpolat N, Duzova A et al (2017) Cardiovascular phenotypes in children with CKD: the 4C study. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 12:19–28
Flynn JT, Mitsnefes M, Pierce C, Cole SR, Parekh RS, Furth SL et al (2008) Blood pressure in children with chronic kidney disease: a report from the Chronic Kidney Disease in Children study. Hypertension 52:631–637
ESCAPE Trial Group; Wuhl E, Trivelli A, Picca S, Litwin M, Peco-Antic A et al (2009) Strict blood-pressure control and progression of renal failure in children. N Engl J Med 361:1639–1650
Mitsnefes M, Flynn J, Cohn S, Samuels J, Blydt-Hansen T, Saland J et al (2010) Masked hypertension associates with left ventricular hypertrophy in children with CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol 21:137–144
Lee JM, Kronbichler A, Shin JI, Oh J (2020) Review on long-term non-renal complications of childhood nephrotic syndrome. Acta Paediatr 109:460–470
Mitsnefes MM (2012) Cardiovascular disease in children with chronic kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 23:578–585
Groothoff JW, Grootenhuis M, Dommerholt A, Gruppen MP, Offringa M, Heymans HS (2002) Impaired cognition and schooling in adults with end stage renal disease since childhood. Arch Dis Child 87:380–385
Icard P, Hooper SR, Gipson DS, Ferris ME (2010) Cognitive improvement in children with CKD after transplant. Pediatr Transplant 14:887–890
Chen K, Didsbury M, van Zwieten A, Howell M, Kim S, Tong A et al (2018) Neurocognitive and educational outcomes in children and adolescents with CKD: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 13:387–397
Hooper SR, Gerson AC, Butler RW, Gipson DS, Mendley SR, Lande MB et al (2011) Neurocognitive functioning of children and adolescents with mild-to-moderate chronic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 6:1824–1830
Mahesh S, Kaskel F (2008) Growth hormone axis in chronic kidney disease. Pediatr Nephrol 23:41–48
Rashid R, Neill E, Maxwell H, Ahmed SF (2007) Growth and body composition in children with chronic kidney disease. Br J Nutr 97:232–238
Kogon AJ, Harshman LA (2019) Chronic kidney disease: treatment of comorbidities I: (nutrition, growth, neurocognitive function, and mineral bone disease). Curr Treat Options Pediatr 5:78–92
Santos F, Carbajo-Perez E, Rodriguez J, Fernandez-Fuente M, Molinos I, Amil B et al (2005) Alterations of the growth plate in chronic renal failure. Pediatr Nephrol 20:330–334
Ardissino G, Testa S, Dacco V, Paglialonga F, Vigano S, Felice-Civitillo C et al (2012) Puberty is associated with increased deterioration of renal function in patients with CKD: data from the ItalKid Project. Arch Dis Child 97:885–888
Watson AR, Harden P, Ferris M, Kerr PG, Mahan J, Ramzy MF (2011) Transition from pediatric to adult renal services: a consensus statement by the International Society of Nephrology (ISN) and the International Pediatric Nephrology Association (IPNA). Pediatr Nephrol 26:1753–1757
Foster BJ, Dahhou M, Zhang X, Platt RW, Samuel SM, Hanley JA (2011) Association between age and graft failure rates in young kidney transplant recipients. Transplantation 92:1237–1243
Watson AR (2000) Non-compliance and transfer from paediatric to adult transplant unit. Pediatr Nephrol 14:469–472
Harden PN, Walsh G, Bandler N, Bradley S, Lonsdale D, Taylor J et al (2012) Bridging the gap: an integrated paediatric to adult clinical service for young adults with kidney failure. BMJ 344:e3718
Dobbels F, Ruppar T, De Geest S, Decorte A, Van Damme-Lombaerts R, Fine RN (2010) Adherence to the immunosuppressive regimen in pediatric kidney transplant recipients: a systematic review. Pediatr Transplant 14:603–613
Harden PN, Sherston SN (2013) Optimal management of young adult transplant recipients: the role of integrated multidisciplinary care and peer support. Ann Saudi Med 33:489–491
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pepper, R.J., Trompeter, R.S. The causes and consequences of paediatric kidney disease on adult nephrology care. Pediatr Nephrol 37, 1245–1261 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-021-05182-w
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-021-05182-w