Abstract
Mt. Nemrut (Nemrut volcano or caldera) is a quiescent Quaternary volcano situated in Eastern Anatolia (Turkey) near the western shore of Lake Van. The onset of Nemrut volcanism comprised lava flows and the formation of peripheral silicic doming representing the pre-caldera stage. After the syn-caldera stage (caldera-forming), which entailed widespread pyroclastics, the post-caldera stage produced peralkaline-type rocks, ash eruptions, and rift activities with basalt- and rhyolite (comendite)-type lava flows; a lava lake represents the latest volcanic activity (1441, 1597, and 1692 ad). The scope of this study involves building an inventory and assessing the site-specific geodiversity elements of Nemrut volcano that are relevant for geotourism use and geopark development. Nemrut volcano produces diverse abiotic elements with geomorphologic, structural, lithologic, and hydrologic values. The domes (Kirkor and Kale) and the Nemrut camels are geomorphological geosites. The lakes (hot and cold lakes) are hydrological geosites. The rift zone includes geosites with lithologic elements. The Nemrut caldera geosite consists of different amalgamations of abiotic elements. The method of Brilha (2016) was used to assess the geosites of Nemrut volcano. The average scientific value and geotourism use (potential touristic use) scores for all geosites are 3.16 and 2.32, respectively. The scientific values are greatest for the geosites of the caldera (3.60) and the lakes (3.40). The highest geotourism scores match well with the highest scientific value scores, obtained for the caldera and the lakes. The geological diversity indicator, a sub-component of the scientific value, is remarkably high for the caldera geosite (0.2) compared to the other geosites (0.0). The uniqueness (a geo-patrimonial criterion), bio-cultural and aesthetic scores highly influence the geotourism scores for the geosites of the caldera, lakes and rift zone compared to the scores of the other geosites. We propose that Nemrut volcano, and especially the geosites of Nemrut caldera and the lakes, has significant geopark and geoheritage values. Nemrut volcano, a proposed geopark site, exhibits the most recent volcanism in Anatolia and is among the geoparks included in the European Geoparks Network. The volcano is registered as a Ramsar site and supports vulnerable and endangered species (Melanitta fusca and endemic plants). The volcano is also a distinctive cultural landscape with a mythical origin and is relatively close to the touristic sites of the ruins of Urartu, an archaic kingdom in the northern part of the ancient Near East extending into portions of Eastern Anatolia. Due to these cultural assets and geo-assets, Nemrut volcano is a relevant geotouristic destination. The development of this volcano into a geopark may contribute to rural development by increasing local gross domestic product (GDP) in terms of employment and touristic traffic. Additionally, we make some recommendations related to infrastructure, precautions (medical services and a warning system for natural hazards), tourism services and a geopark tourist route to increase the importance of the volcano as a geopark.
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Acknowledgements
We are grateful to editor, Dr. Kevin Page, and an anonymous reviewer for their constructive comments and suggestions. Thanks are due to Research Assistant Ümit Buğrahan Özcan (Bitlis Eren University, Turkey) for helping to take photos of the geosites. We also thank Instructor Oktay Subaşı (Bitlis Eren University, Turkey) for providing the panoramic views of the Nemrut caldera and Geophysical Engineer Yusuf Mahsereci (AFAD, Bitlis, Turkey) for his help during the field survey.
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Appendix 1 Volcanic Themes in the European Geopark Network and Nemrut caldera
Appendix 1 Volcanic Themes in the European Geopark Network and Nemrut caldera
This eclectic nature of the intersection between cultural value and volcanic activity is unique among the geoparks in the European Geopark Network, where the volcanic themes in geographic-geologic settings can be described as ancient, extinct, and active volcanism, in contrast with the proposed geopark site of Nemrut Volcano below. Geoparks with volcanic themes registered in the EGU are described case-by-case and then grouped (by premise) into their relevant geologic setting and geologic age order. The last paragraph in this manuscript is a conclusion statement about Nemrut caldera that was derived from inductive-based premises and the caldera’s unique bio-cultural assets.
Only 32% of the current EGN comprises volcanic themes (EGN 2020). The contexts of these volcanic themes were divided into ancient, extinct, and active volcanism herein. Ancient volcanism is recorded in a stratigraphic setting and does not overlap with current plate boundaries (Wood 2009) or is cut off from its magma source(s). These sites are related to ancient (Palaeozoic) orogenies (Avalonian-Cadomian, Caledonian, and Hercynian). Another categorical definition includes extinct volcanoes that are linked to current plate boundaries, Cenozoic deformation belts (herein, the Alpine orogeny), or the Tethyan Ocean; the volcanism at these sites ceased in geologic times (herein, in the Triassic period and Oligocene, Miocene, and Pleistocene epochs). These volcanoes are not expected to become active again on a comparable time scale, but it is not claimed that this extinct volcano type cannot erupt again on the geologic timescale (millions of years). Active volcanism in the Quaternary period encompasses eruption events occurring at present or within recorded history (4360 bc to the present day) according to the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA 2020). A more comprehensive context deals only with active volcanoes, with eruption events that have occurred within approximately the last 10,000 years (Holocene epoch) based on the Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program (SIGVP 2013). The geoparks with active volcanic themes within the Holocene epoch form 9% of the entire list of EGN (2020). Ancient and extinct volcanic themes comprise 12% and 11% of the EGN list, respectively.
The oldest ancient volcanic remnants linked to ancient orogens among the EGNs within continental Europe are Geopark Beaujolais in France, Sesia-Val Grande Geopark in Italy, and Bohemian Paradise Geopark in the Czech Republic. Geopark Beaujolais includes volcanic outputs resulting from the Hercynian (Variscan) orogeny (BUGG 2020) and dating to the Devonian to Carboniferous periods (430–330 Ma) in a volcanic archipelago (GB 2020). The volcanic caldera of the Sesia supervolcano erupted in the Permian period (280 Ma) and is visible at the Sesia-Val Grande Geopark (Selvaggio et al. 2016; SVG 2020). The Bohemian Paradise Geopark (BPG 2020) exhibits the intense volcanism products of continental intermontane basins associated with the Variscan orogeny dated to 360-260 Ma in the Permo-Carboniferous period (Ulrych et al. 2006) and recurrent volcanism in the Cretaceous period (79 Ma) to the Pleistocene epoch (0.26 Ma) via pre-existing Variscan-associated weakness zones (Ulrych et al. 2011). Outside of continental Europe, the oldest ancient volcanic themes related to ancient orogens on the EGN list are located in Atlantic Europe. Geoparks in Wales-UK (GeoMôn Geopark), Scotland-UK (Shetland Geopark), and the UK (North Pennines AONB European Geopark) embody these volcanic themes. The GeoMôn Geopark includes pillow lava linked to arc-related magmatism during the Precambrian (630–570 Mya) associated with the Avalonian-Cadomian orogeny (Linnemann et al. 2007), forming at a Precambrian constructive plate margin that is part of Avalonia (EGN 2020; Murphy et al. 2019). The Shetland Geopark exposes the flank of a stratovolcano that was active during the Caledonian orogeny (GSL 2020), mainly between the late Cambrian and mid-Devonian (490-390 Ma). The North Pennines Geopark has an escarpment that is a volcanic remnant from 480 Ma (EGN 2020; NP 2020). The volcanic material was part of the Iapetus Ocean that subducted during the Caledonian orogeny (Lawrence et al. 2004). The relatively younger (extinct and active) volcanic themes are located across all geographic regions of Europe and are described as follows.
The Geopark Vis Arcipelago (Croatia) displays volcanic occurrences (GVA 2020a) belonging to geo-events of the pre-Alpine orogeny. The volcanic rocks in this geopark are from a volcanogenic-sedimentary-evaporitic complex of Triassic age: the Adriatic Carbonate Platform sequence (Vlahović et al. 2005; Lozić et al. 2012). The complex developed along the Gondwanan margin through the accumulation of siliciclastic–carbonate deposits (Vlahović et al. 2005) and volcanism (Middle Triassic, 247–237 Ma), linked to the partial break-up or drifting of Gondwana and Adria (Vlahović et al. 2005; GVA 2020b). The Troodos Geopark (Cyprus Island) comprises geosites on the hills and flanks of the Troodos mountain range consisting of ophiolites (TG 2020) known as members of the Troodos complex, dating to 90–92 Ma in the Late Cretaceous (Ring and Pantazides 2019). This complex includes different types of rocks with ophiolitic compositions. One of these rock types is a volcanic complex of pillow lavas and basalt with dikes (TG 2020; GMC 1979). The ophiolites are slices originating from the Late Cretaceous Neo-Tethyan oceanic lithosphere and are linked to the closure of the southern branch of the Neo-Tethys Ocean (Morag et al. 2016). The Troodos complex formed by spreading above the (pre-Alpine orogeny) African and Eurasian plates in the Cretaceous (Ring and Pantazides 2019) and was uplifted (pre-Alpine orogeny) by the collision between these plates (TUGG 2020). Romania (Hateg Country Dinosaurs Geopark) and Hungary-Slovakia (Novohrad–Nograd Geopark) contain volcanism with paleohabitats in continental Europe; the volcanic themes of these geoparks are dated to 72–65 Ma (Late Cretaceous) and 30 Ma (Oligocene), respectively (EGN 2020). The joint geopark in Austria-Slovenia (Karavanke/Karawanken) represents the Smrekovec Volcanic Complex of the Upper Oligocene (ca. 28–23 Ma) and is related to the initial extensional evolution stage of the Pannonian Basin; this stage resulted in continental escape from the collision zone (uplift of the Alps) in the Late Oligocene to Neogene (Kralj 2012; KKG 2020). The Bakony-Balaton (Hungary) geopark in continental Europe has emblematic volcanic remnants (maar, dome and caldera remnants) from calc-alkaline volcanism related to the subduction-collision processes of the Pannonian Basin, which preceded by the closure of two oceanic realms (the Triassic-Cretaceous Neotethys and Middle Jurassic–Paleogene Alpine Tethys Oceans), Miocene syn-rift extension and post-rift basin evolution (Pánisová et al. 2018). The Tethys was formerly an ocean before the Alps (Alp Mountain chain, the outcome of the Alpine orogeny) were uplifted as a result of the collision. The volcanic themes of the Bakony-Balaton Geopark represent late Miocene volcanism dated to 8 Ma (BBG 2020). Papuk Geopark (Croatia) is known for its famous volcanic exposures of columnar jointing in the Rupnica geosite (PGG 2020; Balen and Petrinec 2014); this site is found in the Pannonian Basin. This volcanic exposure is correlated with basin evolution developing from the opening and subsequent closure of the Triassic-Cretaceous Neotethys and Middle Jurassic–Paleogene Alpine Tethys Oceans together with extensional magmatism in the Miocene connected to volcanic successions dated to 22 to 17 Ma in the Dinarides (Balázs et al. 2016). The geopark and Rupnica geosite therein occur in the Dinaride region, whereas the ages of the nearby Rupnica geosite and the Miocene extension of the basin are controversial (reported as 75–32 Ma in Pamić (1991)). Hence, the inference of age is related to the two quite different regional evolutionary settings (pre-Alpine and Alpine) in the basin (Balen and Petrinec 2014). The Swabian Alps Geopark (Germany) contains volcanic remains of a crater (Hoewenegg erupted 10 Ma in the Miocene) and a maar (Randeck formed 17–20 Ma in the Miocene), elements of Hegau Volcanism at the Rhine Graben rift linked to intraplate activity in the Alpine orogenic belt (de Wall et al. 2004; SAG 2020). The Cabo de Gata-Nijar (Spain) geopark in continental Europe is associated with the Alpine orogen through the extensional collapse-uplift mechanism of the Carboneras fault zone in Spain (Rutter et al. 2012; Scotney et al. 2000). The volcanic theme of this geopark displays late Miocene volcanism beginning in approximately 11 or 7.5 Ma (Scotney et al. 2000; Martín et al. 2003; CVG 2020). The Lesvos Geopark in Greece also contains volcanic remnants of calderas (Lepetymnos, Vatous, and Agra), domes (Mesotopos), and columnar lava (Anemotia) that are linked to Early Miocene (21.5 to 16.5 Ma) volcanic activity (Zouros 2005; LG 2020). These volcanic activities are considered part of the calc-alkaline volcanism domain in the Aegean–Western Anatolia Volcanic Belt above the Hellenic subduction zone (Chakrabarti et al. 2012; Dilek 2006; Innocenti et al. 2005; Zouros 2005). The zone formed due to the accumulation and subduction stages of the Alpine orogeny in the Miocene–Pliocene along the Hellenic arc (Mountrakis 2006) and due to extensional basin development in the Neogene in the Aegean region (Pe-Piper et al. 2019). Relatively younger volcanic themes that resulted from the uplift of the Alps (Alpine orogeny) and the related faulting can be seen in Monts d’Ardèche (France). The volcanism themes of Strombolic craters, domes, maars, dikes and basalt columns are part of the landscape in this geopark. The first phase of volcanism present at Monts d’Ardèche began 12 Ma (Miocene), and the last volcanic episode led to the formation of craters between 12 and 40 ka years ago, in the Pleistocene (MAG 2020).
The only active volcanic terrain in continental Europe is located in the Vulkaneifel Geopark (Germany), where the most recent maar-type geomorphosite (Ulmener Maar) dates to 10,970 years ago and was activated by glacial unloading (Nowell et al. 2006). The south eastern passage to continental Europe is Anatolia (Anatolian Peninsula, Anatolian Plateau, or Asia Minor), where the Kula Geopark (Turkey) is located in the western sector (Aegean Region). The geopark contains basaltic columns, lava flows, and maars from volcanic eruptions dating from 1.94 ± 0.16 Ma to 4 ± 2 ka (Şen et al. 2019). These volcanic themes are part of the Neogene extensional basin (Moores and Fairbridge 1997; Chamot-Rooke et al. 2005) in the Aegean region and formed in association with the Alpine orogenic belt (Moores and Fairbridge 1997; Ziegler and Roure 1999). The Alpine orogeny was initiated by the convergence of Africa and Eurasia (De Graciansky et al. 2011). The collision stage of this orogeny and the retreat of the oceanic slab southward are linked to the widespread arc volcanism (Şen et al. 2019) known as the Aegean–Western Anatolia Volcanic belt, which extends from the Rhodope Massif–Thrace through the Central Aegean Sea and Western Anatolia (Innocenti et al. 2005).
The most recently active volcanic terrains among the European geopark themes are found in Macaronesia, along the westernmost and south-westernmost fronts of the Atlantic Ocean in Mediterranean Europe. The Canary (Spain) and Azores (Portugal) archipelagos are part of Macaronesia. The Canary archipelago consists of the El Hierro and Lanzarote-Chinijo Islands Geoparks, where a shield volcano (2012 latest eruption date) and pyroclastic cones (1824 latest eruption date), respectively, are found. The Azores archipelago contains the Azores Geopark. This geopark contains several stratovolcanoes, one of which, Terceria, erupted in 1998, representing the most recent event. The Canary archipelago and its geoparks occur in an intraplate hotspot zone (Carracedo et al. 1998). The Azores archipelago and its geoparks occur in the adjoining zone of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Gloria fault, which is a segment of the Azores-Gibraltar fault (Verzhbitskii et al. 2010). In the European Arctic region, along the northernmost front of Europe, the Reykjanes and Katla Geoparks in Iceland formed on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and represent volcanic fissures comprising lava flows (with the latest eruption date recorded in 1830) and volcanic fissures represented by a stratovolcano (with the latest eruption dates recorded in 2011 and 2010), respectively.
The oldest volcanic themes in the EGN are part of ancient orogenesis (Hercynian, Avalonian-Cadomian, and Caledonian) and occur in continental and Atlantic Europe. They encompass 12% of the entire list of EGN (2020). The geoparks in continental Europe date from Devonian to Permian times. The sites in Atlantic Europe date from Precambrian and Cambrian to Devonian times. The extinct volcanic themes in the EGN formed during the (pre-)Alpine orogeny or in extensional basins related to the Alpine orogeny. These volcanic activities occurred in continental Europe, except for Cyprus Island, and comprise 11% of the EGN list. They date from Mesozoic and Oligocene to Pleistocene times. The active volcanic themes in the EGN reflect different geologic settings. The geoparks related to the extensional basin of the Alpine orogeny occur in the south-eastern passage of continental Europe (Anatolia), with the exception of the Vulkaneifel Geopark (Germany). Macaronesia and the European Arctic region, located far from continental Europe, display different volcanic plumbing mechanism(s) related to a hotspot zone in the Atlantic Ocean, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge or the seismic Gloria fault. These geoparks comprise 9% of EGN list and date from the Holocene to present; however, present volcanic themes are only found along the Atlantic front of Europe.
To summarize, the youngest activity in continental Europe is observed only at the Vulkaneifel Geopark (Germany), and this activity dates to 10,970 years ago. The Kula Geopark, which is on the EGN list, is located in Anatolia, but its volcanism dates to 4±2 ka. However, Nemrut volcano, a proposed geopark, exhibits the most recent volcanism, with historical events that occurred in 1441-1597 ad (Şerefhan 1597; Karakhanian et al. 2002; Aydar et al. 2003) at the passage to continental Europe (Anatolia), and this proposed geopark is also a Ramsar site (Ramsar 2019) that includes vulnerable and endangered species (M. fusca and endemic plants) (Seven et al. 2019). Additionally, the volcano represents a distinctive cultural landscape with mythical origins (Şerefhan 1597; Karaoğlu and Kılıç 2017) and touristic spots. It also has a steep topography stimulating aesthetic perceptions. Therefore, Nemrut volcano has remarkable value due to its unique geographic-geologic setting along with its biodiversity and cultural values, and this location can be considered a geopark and a geoheritage site.
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Ertekin, ., Ekinci, Y.L., Büyüksaraç, A. et al. Geoheritage in a Mythical and Volcanic Terrain: an Inventory and Assessment Study for Geopark and Geotourism, Nemrut Volcano (Bitlis, Eastern Turkey). Geoheritage 13, 73 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-021-00593-5
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-021-00593-5