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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 26 July 2021
While it is a consumer’s prerogative to be offered all kinds of food products they can choose from, it is also a consumer’s own responsibility as to what kind of products they choose. It is still argued that free choice is only an illusion due to the general decline in food quality; in this context, the extent of free choice that the consumer has is considered, as well as the factors affecting it. These include fundamental European Union principles that demand strong science to prove safety, observe the lowest applicable quality standards and by extent offer a wide leniency range to food manufacturers when it comes to food quality. Another main factor stems from a food law that intensely focuses on securing food safety, while somehow disregarding quality. In addition to that, major efforts have been concentrated on strengthening food information for the purpose of enabling consumers to make healthier choices by both simplifying information on the front of packaging and increasing it on the back, while no direct changes targeting the composition of food have been proposed. As a result, what healthy food choices are left on the market and how accessible are they to consumers?
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2 A Garde, EU Law and Obesity Prevention (Alphen aan den Rijn, Wolters Kluwer 2010) p 24.
3 C MacMaoláin, EU Food Law: Protecting Consumers and Health in a Common Market (Oxford, Hart 2007) pp 223–24.
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5 Art 3(14), Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 28 January 2002 laying down the general principles and requirements of food law, establishing the European Food Safety Authority and laying down procedures in matters of food safety, OJ 2002 L31/1 (General Food Law; GFL); and European Food Information Council, “What is food safety?” (2018), available at <https://www.eufic.org/en/food-safety/article/what-is-food-safety> (last accessed 16 March 2020).
6 Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on the provision of food information to consumers, amending Regulations (EC) No 1924/2006 and (EC) No 1925/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council, and repealing Commission Directive 87/250/EEC, Council Directive 90/496/EEC, Commission Directive 1999/10/EC, Directive 2000/13/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, Commission Directives 2002/67/EC and 2008/5/EC and Commission Regulation (EC) No 608/2004 (Food Information to Consumers; FIC).
7 Garde, supra, note 3, p 235.
8 Recital (15), Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 December 2006 on nutrition and health claims made on foods, OJ L 404/9 (Health Claims Regulation; HCR).
9 Regulation (EC) 178/2002, supra, note 6.
10 K Kapiris, “Food quality” (InTech, 2012) p XI.
11 ibid.
12 WHO and FAO, “Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases”, Report of a joint WHO/FAO expert consultation, WHO Technical Report Series 916 (Geneva 2003).
13 Garde, supra, note 3, p 235.
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20 ibid.
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27 European Commission, “Call for technical data on the permitted food additives glutamic acid (E620), monosodium glutamate (E 621), monopotassium glutamate (E 622), calcium diglutamate (E 623), monoammonium glutamate (E 624) and magnesium diglutamate (E 625)”, available at <https://ec.europa.eu/food/sites/food/files/safety/docs/fs_food-improvement-e620-625_glutamates_201904113_e422_data.pdf> (last accessed 20 March 2020).
28 World Health Organization and International Agency for Research on Cancer, “Monographs on the evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to humans” (Geneva, 1972–present).
29 Safe Food Advocacy Europe, “Additives”, available at <https://www.safefoodadvocacy.eu/additives/> (last accessed on 20 March 2021).
30 ibid.
31 “Titanium dioxide”, Unilever, available at <https://www.unilever.com/brands/Our-products-and-ingredients/Your-ingredient-questions-answered/titanium-dioxide.html> (last accessed 17 May 2021).
32 ibid; and Part B, Annex II, Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on food additives, OJ L 354/16 (Food Additives Regulation).
33 F Southey, “European Commission urged to ban food additive E171: ‘prevention is better than cure’” (Food Navigator, 2019), available at <https://www.foodnavigator.com/Article/2019/05/06/European-Commission-urged-to-ban-food-additive-E171-Prevention-is-better-than-cure> (last accessed 20 March 2020).
34 ibid.
35 European Food Safety Authority, “Titanium dioxide: E171 no longer considered safe when used as a food additive” (EFSA, 6 May 2021), available at <https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/news/titanium-dioxide-e171-no-longer-considered-safe-when-used-food-additive> (last accessed 15 May 2021).
36 ibid.
37 E Millstone, “Food additives: a technology out of control?” (1984) 1526 New Scientist 20 et sqq.
38 ibid, p 20.
39 Boseley, supra, note 22.
40 WH Edinger, “Food, safety and the behavioural factor of risk” (2017) 5 European Journal of Risk Regulation 491 et sqq, at pp 492–93.
41 Commission Proposal of 8 November 2000 for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council Laying down the General Principles and Requirements of Food Law, Establishing the European Food Safety Authority, and Laying down Procedures in Matters of Food, COM (2000)716 Final, at p 11.
42 RH Lustig, K Mulligan, SM Noworolski et al, “Isocaloric fructose restriction and metabolic improvement in children with obesity and metabolic syndrome” (2016) 4 Obesity 453 et sqq.
43 J Stamler, Q Chan, ML Daviglus et al, “Relation of dietary sodium (salt) to blood pressure and its possible modulation by other dietary factors” (2018) 71 Hypertension 631.
44 Art 14 GFL; Edinger, supra, note 41; and M El Gemayel, “Creating an integrated European policy on food quality: how can the law contribute to the conservation of human health?” (2021) 16 European Food and Feed Law Review 117 et sqq.
45 Council Directive No 62/2645/EEC on the approximation of the rules of the Member States concerning the colouring matters authorized for use in foodstuffs intended for human consumption, OJ 115/2645.
46 P Gray, “Food law and the internal market: taking stock” (1990) 15 Food Policy 111 et sqq.
47 SafeFood, “The history of food colour additives”, available at <https://www.safefood.eu/Food-Colour-Resource/History.aspx> (last accessed 24 March 2020).
48 Natural Food Colours Association, “The legislation of food colours in Europe”, available at <https://natcol.org/foods-colours-legislation-full-article/> (last accessed 24 March 2020).
49 ibid.
50 Rewe Zentrale AG v Bundesmonopolverwaltung für Branntwein 120/78 [1979] ECR 649.
51 Annex V, Food Additive Regulation, supra, note 33.
52 L Khayyat, A Essawy, J Sorour et al, “Tartrazine induces structural and functional aberrations and genotoxic effects in vivo” (2017) 5 PeerJ 3041 et sqq.
53 ILD Moutinho, LC Bertges and RVC Assis, “Prolonged use of the food dye tartrazine (FD&C yellow no 5) and its effects on the gastric mucosa of Wistar rats” (2007) 67 Brazilian Journal of Biology 141 et sqq.
54 ibid.
55 Art 34 TFEU.
56 Commission of the European Communities, “Completion of the Internal Market: Community Legislation on Foodstuff, Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament”, (8 November 1985) 603 final, at p 9.
57 T Knowles, Food Safety in the Hospitality Industry (Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann 2002) p 11.
58 Garde, supra, note 3, p 235.
59 Commission of the European Communities, supra, note 57.
60 Millstone, supra, note 38, p 24.
61 ibid.
62 ibid.
63 European Commission, supra, note 5.
64 C MacMaoláin, Food Law: European, Domestic and International Frameworks (Oxford, Hart 2015) p 235.
65 ibid.
66 A Szajkowska, “The impact of the definition of the precautionary principle in EU food law” (2010) 47 Common Market Law Review 173–96, at p 195; and Case C-41/02, Commission v. The Netherlands, [2004] ECR I-11375, at 52.
67 Szajkowska, supra, note 67, p 174.
68 Art 191(1)(2) TFEU (ex Art 174(1)(2) TEC).
69 Art 14 GFL.
70 Art 7(1) GFL.
71 Szajkowska, supra, note 67.
72 Art 14(1) GFL.
73 Edinger, supra, note 41, p 491.
74 Art 7(1) GFL.
75 Garde, supra, note 3, p 24.
76 D Polinski, “Unfit for consumption – application and interpretation of the concept ‘unfit for human consumption’ according to Article 14 (2) (b) Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 in the European Union” (2017) MSc thesis, Wageningen University & Research.
77 Red Bull, Case C-24/2000 Commission v France [2004] ECR I-1277.
78 Commission Proposal of a GFL, at p 11.
79 Garde, supra, note 3, p 235.
80 Recital (15), Health Claims Regulations.
81 C MacMaoláin, “Waiter! There’s a beetle in my soup. Yes sir, that’s E120: disparities between actual individual behaviour and regulating food labelling for the average consumer in EU law” (2008) 45 Common Market Law Review 1147, at p 1160.
82 J Breda, LSN Castroa, S Whiting et al, “Towards better nutrition in Europe: evaluating progress and defining future directions” (2020) 96 Food Policy 101887.
83 European Commission, “Nutrition labelling”, available at <https://ec.europa.eu/food/food/labelling-and-nutrition/food-information-consumers-legislation/nutrition-labelling_en> (last accessed 25 June 2021).
84 Art 35 FIC.
85 Z Talati, R Norman, S Pettigrew et al, “The impact of interpretive and reductive front-of-pack labels on food choice and willingness to pay” (2017) 14 International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 171.
86 Breda et al, supra, note 83.
87 European Commission, supra, note 84.
88 European Commission, “Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, ‘A Farm to Fork Strategy for a Fair, Healthy and Environmentally-Friendly Food System’” (2020), at p 3.
89 European Commission, “Remarks Delivered by Commissioner Kyriakides at the Press Conference on the Adoption of the Biodiversity Strategy and the Farm to Fork Strategy” (2020).
90 European Commission, supra, note 89, at p 3.
91 ibid, at p 13.
92 ibid.
93 European Commission, “Commission Staff Working Document: Evaluation of the Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 on Nutrition and Health Claims Made on Foods with Regard to Nutrient Profiles and Health Claims Made on Plants and Their Preparations and of the General Regulatory Framework for Their Use in Foods” (2020), at p 6.
94 MacMaoláin, supra, note 82.
95 ibid.
96 Garde, supra, note 3, p 235.
97 Commission Regulation (EU) 2019/649 of 24 April 2019 amending Annex III to Regulation (EC) No 1925/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council as regards trans fat, other than trans fat naturally occurring in fat of animal origin, OJ 2019 L 110/17 (trans fat regulation).
98 Art 1, trans fat regulation.
99 Art 2, trans fat regulation.
100 Art 30(1)(b) FIC.
101 Art 30(7) FIC.
102 ibid.
103 Order No. 160 of 11 March 2003 on the Content of Trans Fatty Acids in Oils and Fats.
104 Art 34 TFEU.
105 S Stender, A Astrup and J Dyerberg, “Tracing artificial trans fat in popular foods in Europe: a market basket investigation” (2014) 4 BMJ Open e005218.
106 World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe, “Eliminating trans fats in Europe: a policy brief” (2015), at p 3.
107 F Branca, A Lartey, S Oenema et al, “Transforming the food system to fight non-communicable diseases” (2019) 365 BMJ l296.
108 Breda et al, supra, note 83.
109 A Draper, E Dowler and J Green, “Lay perceptions of risk in relation to food safety and BSE in the UK: preliminary findings” (2001) 45(Supplement 1) Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 544.
110 A Draper and J Green, “Food safety and consumers: constructions of choice and risk” (2006) 36 Social Policy & Administration 610 et sqq, at p 619.
111 ibid, at p 620.
112 ibid, at p 617.
113 Supra, note 9.
114 MK Taylor, DK Sullivan, EF Ellerbeck, BJ Gajewski and HD Gibbs, “Nutrition literacy predicts adherence to healthy/unhealthy diet patterns in adults with a nutrition-related chronic condition” (2019) 22 Public Health Nutrition 2157; and Hyseni et al, supra, note 15.
115 MacMaoláin, supra, note 4, at p 12.
116 Case 216/1984, Commission v France (milk substitutes) [1988] ECR 993, in which one of the three consumer protection arguments that France presented was that cheaper substitutes will gradually displace the original variety, resulting in limitation of consumer choice.
117 For example, see Red Bull – Case C-24/2000 Commission v France [2004] ECR I-1277; and Bellamy – Case C-123/2000 Criminal proceedings against Christina Bellamy and English Shop Wholesale SA [2001] ECR I-2795; and El Gemayel, supra, note 45, pp 3 and 8.
118 Art 3(b), Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 of 28 June 2007 on organic production and labelling of organic products and repealing Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91, OJ L 189/1.
119 M Barański, L Rempelos, PO Iversen et al, “Effects of organic food consumption on human health; the jury is still out!” (2017) 61 Food & Nutrition Research 1 et sqq.
120 E Kesse-Guyot, J Baudry, KE Assmann et al, “Prospective association between consumption frequency of organic food and body weight change, risk of overweight or obesity: results from the NutriNet-Santé study” (2017) 117 British Journal of Nutrition 325 et sqq; and E Kesse-Guyot, S Péneau, C Méjean et al, “Profiles of organic food consumers in a large sample of French adults: results from the Nutrinet-Santé cohort study” (2013) 8 PLoS One e76998.
121 Arts 7 and 14 GFL, according to main GFL provisions that affect the application of the precautionary principle: unsafety should be proven before a food or ingredient is retrieved from the market; see Edinger, supra, note 41.
122 Art 19(2)(b), Regulation (EC) No 834/2007.
123 Art 21(1)(ii), Regulation (EC) No 834/2007.
124 Art 21(1), Regulation (EC) No 834/2007.
125 Art 10 FIC.
126 Art 20(a) FIC.
127 Art 20(b)(ii) FIC.
128 Art 2(2), Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008.
129 World Health Organization, “Food additives”, available at <https://effl.lexxion.eu/article/EFFL/2021/2/7> (last accessed 26 June 2021).
130 BEUC, “Informed food choices for healthier consumers – BUEC position on nutrition” (4 February 2015), at p 8.
131 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, International Fund for Agricultural Development and World Food Programme, “The state of food insecurity in the world” (2015), available at <http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4646e.pdf> (last accessed 26 June 2021).
