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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 26 July 2021
After World War II, Great Britain faced major economic problems, which the government sought to rectify by reviving export markets and achieving a favorable balance of trade. One overlooked component of reconstruction was a decision to recognize tourism as an “invisible export,” a way to draw currency, especially American dollars, into the country. However, in a period characterized by scarcity, rationing, and austerity measures, the endeavor presented enormous challenges. The situation was exacerbated by the advent of the Marshall Plan in 1948. It required British participation in a European-based tourism scheme that jeopardized the success of Britain's own initiative and, ironically, could potentially undermine the economic benefits that Marshall Plan participation was supposed to provide. In exploring the history of British tourism policy in this era, this article shows the extent to which the Marshall Plan compromised an important aspect of British reconstruction policy. It can thereby better inform our understanding of the complexities of postwar reconstruction and of Britain's guarded response to aspects of the Marshall Plan—particularly the American initiative to promote greater European economic integration in the immediate postwar era.
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2 Christopher Endy, Cold War Holidays: American Tourism in France (Chapel Hill, 2004), 34–40, 44.
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6 Michael John Law, Not Like Home: American Visitors to Britain in the 1950s (London, 2019); Fieldston, Sara, “‘Our Dollars Are Celebrities Abroad’: American Tourists, Consumption, and Power after World War II,” Journal of Tourism History 11, no. 2 (2019); 187–207CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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8 Vickers, Manipulating Hegemony, 2. See also Ellwood, David, “Review: The Impact of the Marshall Plan,” History 74, no. 242 (1989): 427–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Michael Holm, The Marshall Plan: A New Deal for Europe (New York, 2017), xxi.
9 Vickers, Manipulating Hegemony, 2.
10 Piers Brendon, Thomas Cook: 150 Years of Popular Tourism (London, 1991), 9.
11 Brendon, Thomas Cook, 5.
12 Edmund Swinglehurst, Cook's Tours: The Story of Popular Travel (Poole, 1982), 7–9.
13 Brendon, Thomas Cook, 1, 15–16, 74–75, 92–97.
14 Memorandum by the Secretary for Overseas Trade, “History of the ‘Come to Britain’ Movement, and the Consideration of and Basis of a Fresh Organization for Attracting More Overseas Visitors to Great Britain,” December 1942, The National Archives, T 161/1229. (Hereafter the repository is abbreviated TNA.)
15 Waldorf Astor to Winston Churchill, 9 June 1928, TNA, T 161/1229/33797/1.
16 Memorandum by Secretary, Department of Overseas Trade, prepared for the War Cabinet Reconstruction Committee, R.(I.)(44)11, 21 July 1944, TNA, T 161/1229.
17 Deputation from the Travel and Industrial Development Association to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, 19 December 1935, TNA, T 161/1229.
18 See also Ferry, Nation's Host; Walton, British Seaside.
19 Zuelow, Modern Tourism, 144.
20 “Post-War Export Trade Committee,” Appendix to Paper No. 29, 18 August 1942, TNA, T 161/1229.
21 “The Importance of Attracting Visitors to Britain after the War,” memorandum by the Travel and Industrial Development Association of Great Britain and Ireland, 29 July 1942, TNA, T161/1229; L. W. Reeve, Secretary Caravan Club of Great Britain and Ireland, to Lord Reith, 25 March 1941, TNA, HLG 71/775.
22 Ernest Bevin, Minister of Labor, 9 February 1943, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, vol. 36 (1943), cols. 1196–1202.
23 Cabinet: Lord President's Committee, Report of the Catering Wages Commission on the Development of the Catering, Holiday, and Tourist Services [of] 19 September 1945, 19 November 1945, L.P.(45) 243, TNA, T 222/39.
24 Lord Iliffe, “The Importance of Attracting Visitors to Britain,” 19 February 1942, TNA T 161/1229; Post-War Export Trade Committee, Draft Minutes, 9th Meeting, 9 September 1942, TNA, T 161/1229; Post-War Export Trade Committee, “Post-War Tourist Traffic,” TNA, BT 60/67/3.
25 Report of the Catering Wages Commission on the Development of the Catering, Holiday, and Tourist Services, “Appendix V: Note on Tourist Statistics,” 19 September 1945, TNA, PREM 8/358; see also memorandum by R. G. Pinney, “Britain—Destination of Tourists,” June 1944, TNA, T 161/1229.
26 War Cabinet, Reconstruction Committee, R (45) 5, 11 January 1945, Memorandum by the Secretary of the Department of Overseas Trade, “Tourist Traffic,” TNA, T 161/1229; see also War Cabinet, Reconstruction Committee, R (45) 3rd Meeting, 15 January 1945, TNA, T 161/1229.
27 Cabinet: Lord President's Committee, Report of the Catering Wages Commission on the Development of the Catering, Holiday, and Tourist Services, 19 September 1945, p. 6, L.P.(45) 243, 19 November 1945, TNA, T 222/39.
28 Cabinet: Lord President's Committee, Report of the Catering Wages Commission on the Development of the Catering, Holiday, and Tourist Services, 19 September 1945, p. 27, L.P.(45) 243, 19 November 1945, TNA, T 222/39.
29 Cabinet: Lord President's Committee, Report of the Catering Wages Commission on the Development of the Catering, Holiday, and Tourist Services, 19 September 1945, pp. 27–28, L.P.(45) 243, 19 November 1945, TNA, T 222/39.
30 Cabinet Minutes, C.M. (45) 54, 20 November 1945, quoted in report by the Chairman of the Tourist Accommodation Committee, The Accommodation of Students and Tourists from the United States during 1946, 14 February 1946, C.P. (46) 66, TNA, PREM 8/358.
31 Report by the Chairman of the Tourist Accommodation Committee, The Accommodation of Students and Tourists from the United States during 1946, p. 3, C.P. (46) 66, 14 February 1946, TNA, PREM 8/358.
32 Cabinet: Lord President's Committee, Report on the Establishment of a Non-Government Organisation to Foster and Develop the Tourist, Catering and Holiday Services, pp. 28–29, L.P.(46) 277, 26 November 1946, TNA, PREM 8/358.
33 Cabinet, Lord President's Committee, “Tourist, Catering, and Holiday Services, note by the Lord President of the Council, 29 November 1946, TNA, PREM 8/358.
34 “Inter-Departmental Meeting to discuss the prospects of Tourist Traffic during 1946,” 17 January 1946, TNA, LAB 11/2142.
35 Harold Wilson to Stafford Cripps, 6 September 1948, TNA, T 229/393.
36 Cabinet Production Committee, PC (49) 19, 18 February 1949, “Prospects of the Tourist Trade,” memorandum by the President of the Board of Trade, Appendix 1, Interdepartmental Working Group on Tourism, Interim Report by the Chairman, p. 7, TNA, PREM 8/1291.
37 Inter-Departmental Committee on Catering, Holiday, and Tourist Services [OHT], 46 1st Meeting, 19 July 1946, TNA, FO 371/54809.
38 Cabinet: Lord President's Committee, Report on the Establishment of a Non-Government Organisation to Foster and Develop the Tourist, Catering and Holiday Services, L.P.(46) 277, 26 November 1946, TNA, PREM 8/358.
39 See also Mariel Grant, “‘Working for the Yankee Dollar’: Tourism and the Festival of Britain as Stimuli for Recovery,” Journal of British Studies 45, no. 3 (2006), 585–96; John Beckerson, “Marketing British Tourism: Government Approaches to the Stimulation of a Service Sector, 1880–1950,” in Berghoff, Making of Modern Tourism, 133–57.
40 F. Hollings to S. J. Campling, 14 May 1947, TNA T 228/513. See also “Relationship between the British Tourist and Holidays Board and the Travel Association,” M.M. (947) 45, 2 July 1947, TNA, BT 64/4053.
41 Report by Mr. Robin Brook, Mr. E. Wimble, and Mr. N. Wood on the Negotiations for the Integration of the Travel Association and the British Tourist and Holidays Board, September 1949, TNA, BT 64/4060.
42 “Out of the Cage,” Times (London), 23 April 1946, 5.
43 Marc Dierikx, Clipping the Clouds: How Air Travel Changed the World (London, 2008), 58–59.
44 Tourist Travel, 22 December 1947, TNA, FO 371/68865.
45 “First Day of Travel Restrictions,” Times (London), 2 October 1947, 4.
46 New Coastal Towns, report by the Statistics Section, 24 March 1947, TNA, HLG 90/140.
47 Final Report on the Demand for Holidays in 1946 and 1947, TNA, RG 23/90. See also “Appendix B: Social Survey 1946–1948,” in B.T.H.B./83, Report on the Demand for Holidays and the Accommodation Required to Meet the Demand, 1 January 1949, TNA, HLG 90/140.
48 David Kynaston, Austerity Britain, 1945–51 (London, 2007), 114–15.
49 Cabinet minutes, conclusions, C. M. (46) 23rd, 11 March 1946, TNA, T 222/39.
50 “Catering, Holiday and Tourist Services,” note of a deputation from the Post-War Holidays Group of the National Council of Social Service, 4 January 1946, TNA, T 222/39.
51 “Catering, Holiday and Tourist Services,” note of a deputation from the Post-War Holidays Group of the National Council of Social Service, 4 January 1946, TNA, T 222/39; Cabinet, Lord President's Committee, “Catering, Holiday and Tourist Services,” note by the Lord President of the Council, L.P.(46) 117, 14 May 1946, TNA, PREM 8/358.
52 Kynaston, Austerity Britain, 19.
53 Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Austerity in Britain: Rationing, Controls, and Consumption, 1939–1955 (Oxford, 2000), 214–18.
54 Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Austerity in Britain, 31.
55 Zweiniger-Bargielowska, 258–59.
56 “General Statement of United Kingdom Policy in the Development of Exports,” memorandum attached to Cabinet, GEN. 258/A/28, 29 January 1949, TNA, CAB 130/43.
57 Paul Addison, No Turning Back: The Peacetime Revolutions of Post-War Britain (Oxford, 2010), 14–16.
58 Economic Policy Committee, Annex to EPC (49) 131, 28 September 1949, “Canadian and United States Tourism,” note by the Chairman of the Inter-Departmental Working Group on Tourism, TNA, CAB 134/223.
59 Discussion of Overseas Tourists (Facilities) 17 July 1947, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, vol. 440 (1947), cols. 565–67.
60 Mr. Richards, Board of Trade, to H. B. Brenan, Foreign Office, 2 July 1947, TNA, FO 953/1C.
61 A. Dudley, Foreign Office, to D. J. Wardley, Treasury, 21 January 1948, TNA, T 228/513.
62 Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Austerity in Britain, 256–57.
63 Ministry of Food, memorandum for the Inter-Departmental Working Group on Tourism, WGT 19, 3 November 1948, TNA, FO 371/68865.
64 “The Development of Tourism, 1949–1952,” note by the Board of Trade, E (48) 82, 19 August 1948, TNA, T 228/513.
65 Interdepartmental Working Group on Tourism, Minutes of First Joint Meeting of the Working Group and the British Tourist and Holidays Board, TCH. 895/48, WGT.16, 27 October 1948, TNA, FO 371/68865.
66 “Inter-Departmental Meeting to Discuss the Prospects of Tourist Traffic during 1946,” 17 January 1946, TNA, LAB 11/2142.
67 J. A. R. Pimlott, The Englishman's Holiday: A Social History (London, 1947), 230–31.
68 Kynaston, Austerity Britain, 20.
69 Kynaston, 20; Kenneth O. Morgan, The People's Peace: British History, 1945–1989 (Oxford, 1990), 40.
70 Department Secretary to Mr. Hill, 28 October 1946, TNA, HLG 90/140.
71 Sir Stafford Cripps, 15 March 1946, written answers, Parliamentary Debates, Commons, vol. 420 (1946), col. 271.
72 Board of Trade to W. H. L. Patterson, Import Licensing Department, January 1946, TNA, BT 64/774.
73 Re-Allocation of Redundant Government Camps and Hostels, Including Availability of Camps and Hostels for Holiday Purposes, report presented at meeting of 14 February 1946, TNA T 222/39.
74 Report by the Chairman of the Tourist Accommodation Committee, The Accommodation of Students and Tourists from the United States during 1946, Appendix, p. 3, C.P. (46) 66, 14 February 1946, TNA, PREM 8/358.
75 Pelling, Britain and the Marshall Plan, 6.
76 Alan Milward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–51 (London, 1984).
77 E. Bevin to J. Caffrey, US ambassador to France, June 1947, quoted in Pelling, Britain and the Marshall Plan, 14.
78 Holm, Marshall Plan, 59, 110.
79 Gowland, Turner, and Wright, Britain and European Integration, 23.
80 Bevin made the remark at a meeting at 10 Downing Street, 24 June 1947, quoted in Peter Hennessy, Never Again: Britain, 1945–1951 (New York, 1993), 295.
81 Draft record of 5th meeting Conference of Foreign Ministers, 2 July 1947, n.p., TNA, T 236/1889.
82 Tony Judt, Postwar: A History of Europe since 1945 (New York, 2005), 1. See also Pelling, Britain and the Marshall Plan, 12, 16–19; Newton, “Sterling Crisis,” 391.
83 Holm, Marshall Plan, 59.
84 Newton, “Sterling Crisis,” 391–92.
85 Judt, Postwar, 160.
86 Gowland, Turner, and Wright., Britain and European Integration, 23–27.
87 Judt, Postwar, 161.
88 Judt, 157–60.
89 Newton, “Sterling Crisis,” 392.
90 Newton, 392.
91 Minutes of the Meeting of the Smith-Mundt Committee with the Secretary of State, 8 September 1947, TNA, FO 800/514.
92 Gowland, Turner, and Wright, Britain and European Integration, 24.
93 Economic Co-operation Agreement between the Governments of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States of America, 6 July 1948, Treaty Series No. 41 (1948), Command Paper 7469.
94 Herbert Wilkinson, speech before the European Technical Mission to the United States for the study of techniques in travel, hotels, and allied activities, 19 January 1950, quoted in Endy, Cold War Holdiays, 33.
95 Endy, Cold War Holidays, 45.
96 British Tourist and Holidays Board, Annual Report for the Year 1948–1949, pp. 14–15, TNA, BT 13/233.
97 British Tourist and Holidays Board, Annual Report for the Year 1948–1949, p. 15, TNA, BT 13/233.
98 Relations between O.E.E.C. and Other International Organisations, proposal by the Secretary-General, OEEC, Paris, C(48) 68(Rev), 9 July 1948, TNA, BT 11/3932.
99 Endy, Cold War Holidays, 59.
100 Endy, 59–60.
101 Zuelow, Modern Tourism, 153.
102 Joint Publicity Campaign in the United States: Report of European Travel Commission on Joint Action Taken since 1949, pp. 3–4, TOU (53)3, November 1953, TNA, FO 371/10595.
103 Richard K. Popp, The Holiday Makers: Magazines, Advertising, and Mass Tourism in Postwar America (Baton Rouge, 2012), 143–44.
104 Popp, Holiday Makers, 76, 143; Endy, Cold War Holidays, 47.
105 Endy, 101.
106 John Killick, The United States and European Reconstruction, 1945–1960 (Edinburgh, 1997); Hans A. Schmitt, The Path to European Union: From the Marshall Plan to the Common Market (Baton Rouge, 1962); Zuelow, Modern Tourism, 151–54; Patricia Goldstone, Making the World Safe for Tourism (New Haven, 2001); McKenzie, Brian Angus, “Creating a Tourist's Paradise: The Marshall Plan and France, 1948 to 1952,” French Politics, Culture and Society 21, no. 1 (2003), 35–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Luciano Segreto, Carles Manera, and Manfred Pohl, eds., Europe at the Seaside: The Economic History of Mass Tourism in the Mediterranean (New York, 2009).
107 Endy, Cold War Holidays, 54.
108 Brian Angus McKenzie, Remaking France: Americanization, Public Diplomacy, and the Marshall Plan (New York, 2005), 113. See also Victor T. C. Middleton, British Tourism: The Remarkable Story of Growth (Oxford, 2007), 18.
109 See also Morgan, People's Peace, 58–59, 72–75; Hennessy, Never Again, 222.
110 Middleton, British Tourism, 136–37.
111 See, for example, Law, Not Like Home; Fieldston, “Our Dollars.”
112 See Extract from Report on a visit to Paris, 24–27 November 1948, by B. F. C. Floud, 5 December 1948; Annex I, Inter-Departmental Working Group on Tourism, Minutes of 8th meeting, 8 December 1948, WGT 37, TNA, MT 73/112; Interdepartmental Working Group on Tourism, Minutes of 14th meeting, 2 February 1949, WGT 55, TNA, MT 73/112.
113 Gowland, Turner, and Wright, Britain and European Integration, 25.
114 Zuelow, Modern Tourism, 151.
115 Endy, Cold War Holidays, 46 (my italics).
116 Endy, 60.
117 Endy, 125.
118 Middleton, British Tourism, 95.
119 Memorandum by R. G. Pinney, “Britain—Destination of Tourists,” June 1944, TNA T 161/1229.
120 Organisation for European Economic Cooperation, Maritime Transport Committee, Report to the Maritime Transport Committee by the Working Party on Tourism, p. 2, MT/Misc(48)8, 20 October 1948, TNA, MT 73/112.
121 Inter-Departmental Committee on Catering, Holiday, and Tourist Services, OHT 46 1st Meeting, 19 July 1946, TNA, FO 371/54809.
122 Economic Policy Committee, EPC (49), 15th Meeting, October 1949, TNA, CAB 134/223.
123 “Increase in Transatlantic Air Transportation Capacities 1948–1953,” 1953, TNA, T 236/5639.
124 Endy, Cold War Holidays, 125–29.
125 Endy, 48.
126 Tourism, 23 August 1948, TNA, MT 73/112.
127 Organisation for European Economic Cooperation, Technical Services and Programmes Section, Report on the Importance of Tourism between U.S.A. and Europe for European Economic Recovery, p. 3, DT/NI/82, 15 July 1948, TNA, MT 73/112.
128 Endy, Cold War Holidays, 25.
129 “Canadian and United States Tourism,” note by the Chairman of the Inter-Departmental Working Group on Tourism, Annex to EPC (49) 131, p. 5, 28 September 1949, TNA, CAB 134/223.
130 S. Golt to M. T. Flett, “Draft Note on Tourism,” 31 August 1948; Organisation for European Economic Cooperation, Maritime Transport Committee, Report to the Maritime Transport Committee by the Working Party on Tourism, pp. 1–3, MT/Misc(48)8, 20 October 1948, TNA, MT173/112.
131 “Canadian and United States Tourism,” Annex to EPC (49) 131, note by the Chairman of the Inter-Departmental Working Group on Tourism, pp. 3–4, EPC (49) 15th Meeting, 28 September 1949, TNA, CAB 134/223.
132 Travel Association, Tourist Division, Report of the Director-General, November 1949, 19 December 1949, p. 5, TNA, BT 64/1203; “The Requirements of the Tourist Industry 1950,” December 1949, p. 2, TNA, BT 64/1203.
133 Endy, Cold War Holidays, 60–61.
134 British Tourist and Holidays Board, Travel Association, Tourist Division, The Requirements of the Tourist Industry 1950, December 1949, TNA, BT 64/1203.
135 Board of Trade, Minute Sheet, unsigned and undated, TNA, T 236/5639.
136 “More Freedom for Travellers,” Times (London), 14 March 1946, 2.
137 Exchange Control Act, 1947, 10 & 11 Geo. 6 Ch. 14.
138 Working Group on Tourism, “Currency Seizures from Foreigners,” p. 1, note by the Treasury, W.G.T. 90, 1949, TNA, BT 64/1214.
139 Travel Association, Tourist Division, British Tourist and Holidays Board, The Requirements of the Tourist Industry 1950, December 1949, p. 3, TNA, BT 64/1203.
140 Report of the Catering Wages Commission on the Development of the Catering, Holiday, and Tourist Services, 19 September 1945, pp. 11–10, TNA, PREM 8/358.
141 J. G. Bridges, Director-General Tourist Division, British Tourist and Holidays Board, “Director-General's Report on Visit to the United States, Mexico and Canada, October/November 1949,” 29 December 1949, p. 10, TNA, BT 64/1203.
142 J. G. Bridges, Director-General Tourist Division, British Tourist and Holidays Board, “Director-General's Report on Visit to the United States, Mexico and Canada, October/November 1949,” 29 December 1949, p. 9, TNA, BT 64/1203.
143 Popp, Holiday Makers, 122–23.
144 “Working Party on Tax-Free Shopping for Visitors,” paper by Board of Trade, undated, TNA, T 2336/5639.
145 “July Tourist Record,” Times (London), 26 August 1948, 4.
146 Travel Association, Tourist Division, British Tourist and Holidays Board, The Requirements of the Tourist Industry 1950, December 1949, p. 4, TNA, BT 64/1203.
147 “Working Party on Tax-Free Shopping for Visitors,” paper by Board of Trade, undated, TNA, T 2336/5639.
148 J. G. Bridges, Director-General Tourist Division, British Tourist and Holidays Board, “Director-General's Report on Visit to the United States, Mexico and Canada, October/November 1949,” 29 December 1949, TNA, BT 64/1203.
149 Popp, Holiday Makers, 122–23.
150 Travel Association, Tourist Division, British Tourist and Holidays Board, The Requirements of the Tourist Industry 1950, December 1949, p. 5, TNA, BT 64/1203.
151 Travel Association, Tourist Division, minutes, 38th Meeting of the Board of Management, 16 December 1948, TNA, BT 64/1203.
152 S. Golt to Mr. Rowan, 26 July 1949, BT 11/3932; Telegram no. 1156, FO to OEEC, 17 September 1949, TNA, BT 11/3932.
153 Cabinet, European Economic Co-operation Committee, “Tourism Co-operative Publicity,” note by the Board of Trade, E.R. (L) (49) 251, 12 September 1949, TNA, T 228/514.
154 “Tourism,” memorandum to Sir Henry Wilson Smith, p. 3, MTF 113, 15 December 1948, TNA, T 236/5638.
155 “Tourism,” memorandum to Sir Henry Wilson Smith, p. 2, MTF 113, 15 December 1948, TNA, T 236/5638.
156 Travel Association, Tourist Division, Report of the Director-General, November 1949, p. 5, 19 December 1949, TNA, BT 64/1203.
