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PORT CLOSURES AND PERSONS AT SEA IN INTERNATIONAL LAW

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 July 2021

Sofia Galani Open the ORCID record for Sofia Galani [Opens in a new window]
Sofia Galani*
Affiliation:
Senior Lecturer in Public International Law, University of Bristol; Member, Non-Executive Board of Advisors, Human Rights at Sea, Sofia.Galani@bristol.ac.uk.
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Abstract

The systematic protection of persons at sea remains flawed. This problem has become even more acute during the Covid-19 pandemic when port closures have caused an unprecedented humanitarian crisis at sea. This article looks at the impact of port closures on the rights of persons at sea and considers how international law can protect those rights. While persons at sea are afforded significant rights protections in international law, the rights and duties of States often clash, with the result that persons at sea can find themselves in something of a legal vacuum. In order to address this problem, this article argues that the various rights and duties of States must be interpreted and applied in a way that fully recognises the rights of persons at sea.

Keywords

human rights at seaportshealth regulationslaw of the sealabour standardsEUpublic healthpandemicCovid-19
Type
Articles
Information
International & Comparative Law Quarterly , Volume 70 , Issue 3 , July 2021 , pp. 605 - 633
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press for the British Institute of International and Comparative Law

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References

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2 ibid; Guilfoyle, D, ‘Counter-Piracy Law Enforcement and Human Rights’ (2010) 59 ICLQ 140CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Petrig, A, Human Rights and Law Enforcement at Sea: Arrest, Detention and Transfer of Piracy Suspects (Brill Nijhoff 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Galani, S, ‘Somali Piracy and the Human Rights of Seafarers’ (2017) 34 NQHR 71Google Scholar; S Trevisanut, ‘Is There a Right to be Rescued at Sea? A Constructive View’ (2014) 4 Questions of International Law, Zoom-in 3–15; ILO, ‘Fishers First – Good Practices to End Labour Exploitation at Sea’ (2016) 11–17 <www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---declaration/documents/publication/wcms_515365.pdf>.

3 Papanicolopulu, I, International Law and the Protection of People at Sea (Oxford University Press 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Galani, S, ‘Assessing Maritime Security and Human Rights: The Role of the EU and Its Member States in the Protection of Human Rights in the Maritime Domain’ (2020) 35 International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 325CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Haines, S, ‘Developing Human Rights at Sea’ (2021) 35 Ocean Yearbook 1Google Scholar; UN Report of the Secretary-General, ‘Oceans and the Law of the Sea’ (11 September 2019) UN Doc A/74/350, paras 19–30.

4 UN Report of the Secretary-General (n 3) para 21.

5 UNODC, Maritime Crime: A Manual for Criminal Justice Practitioners (2nd edn, United Nations 2019) 69–82 <www.unodc.org/documents/Maritime_crime/19-02087_Maritime_Crime_Manual_Second_Edition_ebook.pdf>.

6 D Hammond et al, ‘The Geneva Declaration on Human Rights at Sea’ (Human Rights at Sea 10 December 2019) <www.humanrightsatsea.org/2019/12/09/geneva-declaration-on-human-rights-at-sea-on-line-platform-launched-on-world-human-rights-day/>.

7 For the need of an inter-regime approach, see Papanicolopulu, International Law and the Protection of People at Sea (n 3) 209–45. See also Klein, N, ‘International Law Perspectives on Cruise Ships and Covid-19’ (2020) 11 Journal of International Humanitarian Legal Studies 283CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Galani, ‘Assessing Maritime Security and Human Rights: The Role of the EU and Its Member States in the Protection of Human Rights in the Maritime Domain’ (n 3) 331–46; UNODC (n 5) 75.

8 ‘WHO Timeline – COVID-19’ (WHO, 27 April 2020) <www.who.int/news-room/detail/27-04-2020-who-timeline---covid-19>; WHO Director-General, ‘Opening Remarks’ (Media Briefing on COVID-19, 11 March 2020) <www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---11-march-2020>.

9 M Belam, B Quinn and A Rourke, ‘Cruise Ship Accounts for More Than Half of Virus Cases outside China – As It Happened’ The Guardian (20 February 2020) <www.theguardian.com/world/live/2020/feb/20/coronavirus-live-updates-diamond-princess-cruise-ship-japan-deaths-latest-news-china-infections>.

10 ‘Coronavirus: US Navy Captain Pleads for Help over Outbreak’ (BBC, 31 March 2020) <www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-52110298>.

11 E McCormick and P Greenfield, ‘Revealed: 100,000 Crew Never Made It off Cruise Ships Amid Coronavirus Crisis’ The Guardian (30 April 2020) <www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/apr/30/no-end-in-sight-100000-crew-on-cruise-ships-stranded-at-sea-coronavirus>; ‘COVID-19: Master Takes Resolute Stand to Assure Crew's Safety and Welfare’ (Human Rights at Sea, 5 April 2020) <www.humanrightsatsea.org/2020/04/05/covid-19-master-takes-resolute-stand-to-assure-crews-safety-and-welfare/>.

12 UN, ‘COVID-19 and Human Rights: We Are All in This Together’ (April 2020) 11 <www.un.org/victimsofterrorism/sites/www.un.org.victimsofterrorism/files/un_-_human_rights_and_covid_april_2020.pdf>; AM Pelliconi, ‘Covid-19: Italy Is Not a “Place of Safety” Anymore. Is the Decision to Close Italian Ports Compliant with Human Rights Obligations?’ (EJIL:Talk!, 23 April 2020) <www.ejiltalk.org/covid-19-italy-is-not-a-place-of-safety-anymore-is-the-decision-to-close-italian-ports-compliant-with-human-rights-obligations/>.

13 UN, ‘COVID-19 and Human Rights’ (n 12) 11.

14 International Chamber of Shipping, ‘Coronavirus (COVID-19): Guidance for Ship Operators for the Protection of the Health of Seafarers’ (29 September 2020) 6 <www.ics-shipping.org/docs/default-source/resources/coronavirus-(covid-19)-guidance-for-ship-operators-for-the-protection-of-the-health-of-seafarers.pdf?sfvrsn=6>.

15 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States of America) (Merits) [1986] ICJ Rep 14, paras 212–13.

16 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (adopted 10 December 1982, entered into force 16 November 1994) 1833 UNTS 3 (LOSC).

17 ibid arts 211 and 218.

18 Kopela, S, ‘Port-State Jurisdiction, Extraterritoriality, and the Protection of Global Commons’ (2016) 47 Oceans Development & International Law 89Google Scholar.

19 de la Fayette, L, ‘Access to Ports in International Law’ (1996) 11 International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 6CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 WHO, International Health Regulations (2005) (3rd edn, WHO 2016) <www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241580496>; Burci, GL, ‘The Legal Response to Pandemics: The Strengths and Weaknesses of the International Health Regulations’ (2020) 11 Journal of International Humanitarian Legal Studies 204, 206–11CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21 Art 1 IHR 2005 defines a traveller as ‘a natural person undertaking an international voyage’ and ‘crew’ as ‘persons on board a conveyance who are not passengers’.

22 Art 23 IHR 2005.

23 Arts 27 and 31 IHR 2005.

24 ‘Coronavirus: Passengers Leave Diamond Princess Amid Criticism of Japan’ (BBC, 20 February 2020) <www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-51555420>; T Armus, ‘“Held Hostage”: Cruise Employees Were Stuck on a Ship and Forced to Work without Pay, Lawsuit Says’ The Washington Post (6 August 2020) <www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2020/08/06/cruise-ship-workers-covid-lawsuit/>.

25 WHO, ‘Operational Considerations for Managing COVID-19 Cases or Outbreaks on Board Ships: Interim Guidance’ (25 March 2020) <www.who.int/publications/i/item/operational-considerations-for-managing-covid-19-cases-outbreak-on-board-ships>.

26 AD Couper et al, Voyages of Abuse: Seafarers, Human Rights and International Shipping (Pluto Press 1999) 29–32; FAO, ‘How Is Covid-19 Outbreak Impacting the Fisheries and Aquaculture Food Systems and What Can FAO Do’ (21 April 2020) 9 <www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/faoweb/FI/COVID19/COVID19_Information_Paper.pdf>.

27 K Oanh Ha and J Levin, ‘Nightmare at Sea Ends in Death for Some Cruise Ship Workers’ Financial Post (12 May 2020) <https://financialpost.com/transportation/nightmare-at-sea-ends-in-death-for-some-cruise-ship-workers>; Bennett, NJ et al. , ‘The COVID-19 Pandemic, Small-Scale Fisheries and Coastal Fishing Communities’ (2020) 48 Coastal Management 338CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

28 UN Report of the Secretary-General (n 3) paras 22–24; B Wagner et al, Recruitment and Retention of Seafarers and the Promotion of Opportunities for Women Seafarers (ILO 2019); ‘Women Transport Workers’ Rights and COVID-19’ (ITF, 20 May 2020) <www.itfseafarers.org/en/news/women-transport-workers-rights-and-covid-19>; ‘Pregnant and Stuck on a Ship in the Middle of the Virus Pandemic’ The Japan Times (9 July 2020) <www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/07/09/world/pregnant-cruise-ship-pandemic/>.

29 M Gafni, ‘Exclusive: Navy Report Details Final Days of Roosevelt Sailor Who Died from COVID Complications’ San Francisco Chronicle (21 July 2020) <www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/Exclusive-Navy-report-details-final-days-of-15421774.php>; ‘Coronavirus: US Navy Removes Captain Brett Crozier Who Raised Alarm’ (BBC, 30 April 2020) <www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-52145230>.

30 A Breeden, ‘How an Invisible Foe Slipped Aboard a French Navy Ship’ The New York Times (19 April 2020) <www.nytimes.com/2020/04/19/world/europe/france-navy-ship-coronavirus.html>.

31 LC Baldor, ‘Dodging COVID-19, Navy Ships Break Record for Staying at Sea’ Navy Times (25 June 2020) <www.navytimes.com/news/your-navy/2020/06/25/dodging-covid-19-navy-ships-break-record-for-staying-at-sea/>.

32 B Essig et al, ‘Top Japanese Government Adviser says Diamond Princess Quarantine was Flawed’ (CNN, 27 February 2020) <https://edition.cnn.com/2020/02/27/asia/japan-diamond-princess-quarantine-crew-intl-hnk/index.html>; R McGuirk, ‘Coronavirus Cruise Ship Finally Leaves Australian Port’ The Diplomat (23 April 2020) <https://thediplomat.com/2020/04/coronavirus-cruise-ship-finally-leaves-australian-port/>.

33 UN, ‘COVID-19 and Human Rights’ (n 12) 11.

34 K Kallergis, ‘Pushbacks: Migrants Accuse Greece of Sending Them Back Out to Sea’ (BBC, 12 December 2020) <www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-55231203>.

35 ‘Malta Shuts Its Ports to Asylum Seekers, Citing COVID-19 Pandemic’ Times of Malta (9 April 2020) <https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/malta-says-it-cannot-guarantee-migrant-rescues.784571>.

36 ‘Joint Civil Society Press Release: The Ill-Treatment Aboard the Captain Morgan Ships Must Be Stopped at Once!’ (Aditus, 20 May 2020) <https://aditus.org.mt/the-ill-treatment-aboard-the-captain-morgan-ships-must-be-stopped-at-once/#.XzEaeC2w38Q>.

37 See the discussion in Section II.

38 Arts 25 and 28 IHR 2005.

39 Klein (n 7) 288.

40 Art 28(1) IHR 2005.

41 ibid.

42 Arts 1 and 28(2) IHR 2005. See also the discussion in Section III(B).

43 Art 43 IHR 2005. See also A Miron, ‘Port Denials and Restrictions in Times of Pandemic: Did International Law Lose Its North Star?’ (EJIL:Talk!, 22 April 2020) <www.ejiltalk.org/port-denials-and-restrictions-in-times-of-pandemic-did-international-law-lose-its-north/>.

44 Papanicolopulu, International Law and the Protection of People at Sea (n 3) 174–6; BH Oxman, ‘Human Rights and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea’ (1997) 36 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 399; T Treves, ‘Human Rights and Law of the Sea’ (2010) 28 BerkJIntlL 1; S Cacciaguidi-Fahy, ‘The Law of the Sea and Human Rights’ (2007) 19 SriLankaJIntlL 85; I Papanicolopulu, ‘The Law of the Sea Convention: No Place for Persons’ (2012) 27 International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 867.

45 IMO Secretary-General, ‘Tackling COVID-19 – A Voyage Together’ (IMO, 19 March 2020) <www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/PressBriefings/Pages/08-IMO-SG-message.aspx>; C Doumbia-Henry, ‘Shipping and COVID-19: Protecting Seafarers as Frontline Workers’ (2020) 19 WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs 287.

46 International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (adopted 1 November 1974, entered into force 25 May 1980) 1184 UNTS 2 (SOLAS).

47 Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (adopted 20 October 1972, entered into force 15 July 1977) 1050 UNTS 16 (COLREG).

48 International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (adopted 7 July 1978, entered into force 28 April 1984) 1361 UNTS 2 (STCW).

49 Papanicolopulu, International Law and the Protection of People at Sea (n 3) 165.

50 J Smyth, ‘Australia Faces “Humanitarian Disaster” on Board Cruise Ships’ Financial Times (2 April 2020) <www.ft.com/content/2096874c-8291-42eb-b6f9-5774a2c192e4>.

51 FAO, ‘How is Covid-19 Outbreak Impacting the Fisheries and Aquaculture Food Systems and What Can FAO Do’ (n 26) 9 <www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/faoweb/FI/COVID19/COVID19_Information_Paper.pdf>.

52 Resolution 9 STCW; Maritime Labour Convention, 2006 (adopted 23 February 2006, entered into force 20 August 2013) 2952 UNTS 3 (MLC, 2006) Reg 1.2; ILO Convention (No 188) Concerning Work in the Fishing Sector (adopted 14 June 2007, entered into force 16 November 2017) (ILO Work in Fishing Convention, 2007) arts 10–12.

53 WHO, IMO and ILO, ‘A Joint Statement on Medical Certificates of Seafarers, Ship Sanitation Certificates and Medical Care of Seafarers in the Context of the COVID-19 Pandemic’ (Circular Letter No 4204/Add.10, 22 April 2020) 2 <https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/2020-04-22-ilo-who-imo-joint-statement-on-medical-certificates-of-seafarers-ship-sanitation-certificates-22-april-sg-(003).pdf?sfvrsn=6afdd464_2>.

54 Papanicolopulu, International Law and the Protection of People at Sea (n 3) 187–9.

55 Ch 2 of the International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue (adopted 27 April 1979, entered into force 22 June 1985) 1405 UNTS 118 (SAR Convention).

56 Ch 2.1.10 SAR Convention; SOLAS ch V, Regulation 33, para 1.

57 J Coppens and E Somers, ‘Towards New Rules on Disembarkation of Persons Rescued at Sea?’ (2010) 25 International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 377.

58 Klein (n 7) 285.

59 ibid 8.

60 R Churchill and V Lowe, The Law of the Sea (Manchester University Press 1999) 63; M Ratcovich, ‘The Concept of Place of Safety: Yet Another Self-Contained Maritime Rule or Sustainable Solution to the Ever-Controversial Question of Where to Disembark Migrants Rescued at Sea?’ (2015) 33 AustYBIL 81.

61 For a detailed account of the facts of the Tampa affair, see C Bailliet, ‘The Tampa Case and its Impact on Burden Sharing at Sea’ (2003) 25 HumRtsQ 742–4.

62 MSC Res 167(78) Annex 34: ‘Guidelines on the Treatment of Persons Rescued at Sea’ (20 May 2004) para 6.12 (emphasis added).

63 ibid para 6.13.

64 For more information on the incident, see E Papastavridis, ‘The Aquarius Incident and the Law of the Sea: Is Italy in Violation of the Relevant Rules?’ (EJIL:Talk!, 27 June 2018) <www.ejiltalk.org/the-aquarius-incident-and-the-law-of-the-sea-is-italy-in-violation-of-the-relevant-rules/>.

65 J van Berckel Smit, ‘Taking Onboard the Issue of Disembarkation: The Mediterranean Need for Responsibility-Sharing after the Malta Declaration’ (2020) 22 European Journal of Migration and Law 508–9; Médecins Sans Frontières, ‘Search and Rescue in the Time of COVID-19: MSF Briefing Paper’ (2020) 3 <www.msf.org/sites/msf.org/files/2020-08/SAR%20during%20COVID19%20-%20briefing%20paper%20and%20timeline.pdf>.

66 SOLAS ch V, Reg 33, para 6.

67 Médecins Sans Frontières (n 65) 3.

68 ‘Migration Flows Across West and Central Africa Nearly Halved by COVID-19; Mobile Populations Economically Impacted’ (IOM, 16 June 2020) <www.iom.int/news/migration-flows-across-west-and-central-africa-nearly-halved-covid-19-mobile-populations>; G Orlandi and M Daventry, ‘Migrant Rescue Ships Return to the Mediterranean after Lockdown’ (Euronews, 23 June 2020) <www.euronews.com/2020/06/23/migrant-rescue-ships-return-to-the-mediterranean-after-lockdown>.

69 AS, DI, OI and GD v Malta, CCPR/C/128/D/3043/2017 (27 January 2021), HRC, Comm No 3042/2017; AS, DI, OI and GD v Italy, CCPR/C/130/D/3042/2017 (27 January 2021), HRC, Comm No 3042/2017.

70 AS, DI, OI and GD v Malta (n 69) para 6.7; AS, DI, OI and GD v Italy (n 69) para 8.5. See also V Moreno-Lax, ‘The Architecture of Functional Jurisdiction: Unpacking Contactless Control—On Public Powers, S.S. and Others v. Italy, and the “Operational Model”’ (2020) 21 German Law Journal 385, 407–8 and E Papastavridis, ‘The European Convention of Human Rights and Migration at Sea: Reading the “Jurisdictional Threshold” of the Convention Under the Law of the Sea Paradigm’ (2020) 21 German Law Journal 417, 433.

71 See the discussion in Section III(C).

72 S Trevisanut, ‘The Recognition of a Right to be Rescued at Sea’ (Oxford Podcasts, 26 February 2021) <http://podcasts.ox.ac.uk/recognition-right-be-rescued-sea>.

73 M/V ‘Saiga’ (No 2) (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines v Guinea) (Judgment of 1 July 1999) ITLOS Reports 1999, 10, para 155; Corfu Channel (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland v Albania) (Merits) [1949] ICJ Rep 4, 22. See also Papanicolopulu, International Law and the Protection of People at Sea (n 3) 162–6; A Petrig and M Bo, ‘The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea and Human Rights’ in M Scheinin (ed), Human Rights Norms in ‘Other’ International Courts (Cambridge University Press 2019); F Delfino, ‘“Considerations of Humanity” in the Jurisprudence of ITLOS and UNCLOS Arbitral Tribunals’ in A Del Vecchio and R Virzo (eds), Interpretations of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea by International Courts and Tribunals (Springer 2019).

74 The M/T ‘San Padre Pio’ Case (Switzerland v Nigeria) (Provisional Measures, Order of 6 July 2019) ITLOS Case No 27, paras 129–130; ‘Enrica Lexie’ Incident (Italy v India), PCA Case No 2015–28, Order – Request for Prescription of Provisional Measures (29 April 2016) paras 106, 124, 132(a); Case concerning the Detention of Three Ukrainian Naval Vessels (Ukraine v Russia) (Provisional measures, Order of 25 May 2019) ITLOS Case No 26, para 112.

75 I Papanicolopulu, ‘Considerations of Humanity in the Enrica Lexie Case’ (2015) 22 Questions of International Law, Zoom-in 37.

76 JHA v Spain, CAT/C/41/D/323/2007 (21 November 2008), UN Committee Against Torture (UNCAT) Communication No 323/2007; Fatou Sonko v Spain, CAT/C/47/D/368/2008 (25 November 2011); Rigopoulos v Spain App No 37388/97 (ECtHR, 12 January 1999); AS, DI, OI and GD v Italy (n 69); AS, DI, OI and GD v Malta (n 69); Xhavara and Others v Italy and Albania App No 39473/98 (ECtHR, 11 January 2001); Women on Waves and Others v Portugal App no 31276/05 (ECtHR, 13 January 2009); Medvedyev and Others v France App No 3394/03 (ECtHR, 23 February 2010); Hirsi Jamaa v Italy App No 27765/09 (ECtHR, 23 February 2012); Sharifi and Others v Italy and Greece App no 16643/09 (ECtHR, 14 October 2014); The Haitian Centre for Human Rights et al v United States, Case 10.675, Report No 51/96, Inter-Am Commission on Human Rights, OEA/Ser.L/V/II.95 Doc 7 rev, at 550 (13 March 1997).

77 Papanicolopulu, International Law and the Protection of People at Sea (n 3) 80–95; Papastavridis, ‘The European Convention of Human Rights and Migration at Sea: Reading the “Jurisdictional Threshold” of the Convention Under the Law of the Sea Paradigm’ (n 70).

78 Galani, ‘Assessing Maritime Security and Human Rights: The Role of the EU and Its Member States in the Protection of Human Rights in the Maritime Domain’ (n 3) 336–46.

79 U Khaliq, ‘Jurisdiction, Ships and Human Rights Treaties’ in H Ringbom (ed), Jurisdiction over Ships: Post-LOSC Developments in the Law of the Sea (Brill 2015) 330.

80 Galani, ‘Assessing Maritime Security and Human Rights: The Role of the EU and Its Member States in the Protection of Human Rights in the Maritime Domain’ (n 3) 344.

81 Art 6 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

82 At the time of writing, there are several pending cases before the ECtHR, such as Safi and Others v Greece App No 5418/15 (ECtHR, 21 January 2015); SS and Others v Italy App No 21660/18 (ECtHR, 3 May 2018) or being prepared for submission, such as CO and AJ v Italy App No 40396/18. See, Papastavridis, ‘The European Convention of Human Rights and Migration at Sea: Reading the “Jurisdictional Threshold” of the Convention Under the Law of the Sea Paradigm’ (n 70) 417–18.

83 UN Human Rights Committee, ‘General Comment No 36 (2018) on article 6 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, on the right to life’ (30 October 2018) UN Doc CCPR/C/GC/36 (General Comment No 36) para 63.

84 AS, DI, OI and GD v Italy (n 69) para 7.8.

85 ibid.

86 See the Individual Opinion of Yuval Shany, Christof Heyns and Photini Pazartzis (dissenting) Annex 1 (para 2 in particular), the Individual Opinion of Andreas Zimmermann (dissenting) Annex 2 and the Individual Opinion of David Moore (dissenting) Annex 3.

87 AS, DI, OI and GD v Italy (n 69) para 7.5. See also P Mallia and FG Attard, ‘Rescue at Sea and the Establishment of Jurisdiction: New Direction from the Human Rights Committee? Part II’ (Opinio Juris, 3 March 2021) <http://opiniojuris.org/2021/03/03/rescue-at-sea-and-the-establishment-of-jurisdiction-new-direction-from-the-human-rights-part-ii-committee/>.

88 UN Human Rights Committee, ‘CCPR General Comment No 6: Article 6 (Right to Life)’ (30 April 1982) para 5; General Comment No 36 (n 83) para 26.

89 Cyprus v Turkey App No 25781/94 (ECtHR, 10 May 2001) para 219.

90 Vasileva v Bulgaria App No 23796/10 (ECtHR, 17 March 2016) para 63.

91 Lopes De Sousa Fernandes v Portugal App no 56080/13 (ECtHR, 19 December 2017) para 175.

92 ibid para 191.

93 See, for example, Reg 4.1 of the MLC, 2006 (n 52); arts 29 and 30 of the ILO Work in Fishing Convention, 2007 (n 52); and the requirements for cruise ships in Section III(E).

94 ‘Supporting Seafarers on the Frontline of COVID-19’ (IMO) <www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/Support-for-seafarers-during-COVID-19.aspx>; ILO, ‘Statement of the Officers of the STC on the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)’ 2 <www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---normes/documents/statement/wcms_740130.pdf>.

95 I Papanicolopulu, ‘Protection from Torture and Inhuman and Degrading Treatment at Sea’ in L Boisson de Chazournes, E Doussis, G Andreone and A Zervaki (eds), Droit International: Enjeux et Perspectives Droit de la Mer, Droits de l'Homme (Pedone 2020).

96 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (adopted 10 December 1984, entered into force 26 June 1987) 1465 UNTS 85 (UNCAT).

97 JHA v Spain (n 76).

98 ibid para 5.2.

99 ibid para 8.2.

100 ‘Malta: Disembark Rescued People’ (Human Rights Watch, 22 May 2020) <www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/22/malta-disembark-rescued-people>.

101 See (n 94). See also Papastavridis, ‘The European Convention of Human Rights and Migration at Sea: Reading the “Jurisdictional Threshold” of the Convention Under the Law of the Sea Paradigm’ (n 70) 424–6 and K Gombeer and M Fink, ‘Non-Governmental Organisations and Search and Rescue at Sea’ (2018) 4 Maritime Safety and Security Law Journal 1, 18–20.

102 N Klein, ‘Maritime Autonomous Vehicles and International Laws on Boat Migration: Lessons from the Use of Drones in the Mediterranean’ (2021) 127 Marine Policy 1–10; Moreno-Lax (n 70).

103 E Beswick, ‘Ocean Viking: 180 Migrants Begin Disembarking Rescue Ship in Sicily’ (Euronews, 7 July 2020) <www.euronews.com/2020/07/07/ocean-viking-180-migrants-begin-disembarking-rescue-ship-in-sicily>.

104 Optional Protocol to the Convention Against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (adopted 18 December 2002, entered into force 22 June 2006) 2375 UNTS 237 (OPCAT). See also R Murray, E Steinerte, M Evans, and A Hallo de Wolf, The Optional Protocol to the UN Convention Against Torture (Oxford University Press 2011) 97–108.

105 Arts 1 and 4 OPCAT.

106 Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, ‘Advice of the Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture to States Parties and National Preventive Mechanisms relating to the Coronavirus Pandemic’ (adopted 25 March 2020) <www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/OPCAT/AdviceStatePartiesCoronavirusPandemic2020.pdf>; ‘COVID-19: Measures Needed to Protect People Deprived of Liberty, UN Torture Prevention Body Says’ (OHCHR, 30 March 2020) <www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=25756>.

107 European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (adopted 26 November 1987, entered into force 1 February 1989) 1561 UNTS 363.

108 CPT, ‘Statement of Principles Relating to the Treatment of Persons Deprived of Their Liberty in the Context of the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Pandemic’ (20 March 2020) CPT/Inf(2020)13.

109 European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (n 107) art 2 states that ‘Each Party shall permit visits, in accordance with this Convention, to any place within its jurisdiction where persons are deprived of their liberty by a public authority’.

110 The discussions took place during a closed meeting on ‘Torture Prevention at Sea’ hosted by Professor Sir Malcolm Evans and the author in May 2020 with the support of the University of Bristol Law School.

111 Hirsi Jamaa v Italy (n 76) para 81. See also Sharifi and Others v Italy and Greece (n 76).

112 The Haitian Centre for Human Rights et al v United States (n 76).

113 ‘UNHCR Calls on Greece to Investigate Pushbacks at Sea and Land Borders with Turkey’ (UNHCR, 12 June 2020) <www.unhcr.org/news/briefing/2020/6/5ee33a6f4/unhcr-calls-greece-investigate-pushbacks-sea-land-borders-turkey.html>; ‘Greece: Investigate Pushbacks, Collective Expulsions’ (Human Rights Watch, 16 July 2020) <www.hrw.org/news/2020/07/16/greece-investigate-pushbacks-collective-expulsions>.

114 ‘Greece Freezes Asylum Applications from Illegally Entering Migrants (eKathimerini, 1 March 2020) <www.ekathimerini.com/250097/article/ekathimerini/news/greece-freezes-asylum-applications-from-illegally-entering-migrants>.

115 V Mantouvalou, ‘Are Labour Rights Human Rights?’ (2012) 3 ELLJ 151; P Alston, ‘Labour Rights as Human Rights: The Not So Happy State of the Art’ in P Alston (ed), Labour Rights as Human Rights (Oxford University Press 2005).

116 MLC, 2006 (n 52).

117 ILO Work in Fishing Convention, 2007 (n 52).

118 ‘Crew Changes: A Humanitarian, Safety and Economic Crisis’ (IMO, 2021) <www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/FAQ-on-crew-changes-and-repatriation-of-seafarers.aspx>.

119 ‘Coronavirus: Guidance on Repatriating Cruise Ship Passengers and Protecting Ship Crews’ (European Commission, 8 April 2020) <https://ec.europa.eu/transport/modes/maritime/news/2020-04-08-coronavirus-cruise-ships_en>.

120 Regulation 2.5 – Repatriation, MLC, 2006 (n 52); ‘Seafarer Abandonment’ (IMO) <www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Legal/Pages/Seafarer-abandonment.aspx>.

121 ‘Supporting Seafarers on the Frontline of COVID-19’ (n 94).

122 IMO, ICAO and ILO, ‘Joint Statement IMO-ICAO-ILO on Designation of Seafarers, Marine Personnel, Fishing Vessel Personnel, Offshore Energy Sector Personnel, Aviation Personnel, Air Cargo Supply Chain Personnel and Service Provider Personnel at Airports and Ports as Key Workers, and on Facilitation of Crew Changes in Ports and Airports in the Context of the COVID-19 Pandemic’ (Circular Letter No 4204/Add.18, 26 May 2020) 2; ‘Statement of the Officers of the STC’ (n 94) 2.

123 IMO, ‘Coronavirus (COVID-19) – Recommended Framework of Protocols for Ensuring Safe Ship Crew Changes and Travel During the Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic’ (Circular Letter No 4204/Add.35/Rev.4, 5 February 2021).

124 IMO, ‘Coronavirus (COVID-19) – Designation of Seafarers as Key Workers’ (Circular Letter No 4204/Add.35/Rev.1, 23 December 2020).

125 Human Rights at Sea, ‘Seafarers’ Challenges During the COVID-19 Pandemic – The Case of the Crew of MV GULF SKY’ (May 2020) 2 <www.humanrightsatsea.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/20200527-Case_Study_Seafarers_Challenges_during_The_COVID-19_Pandemic_The-_Case_of_the_Crew_of_MV_GULF_SKY_SP_LOCKED.pdf>.

126 ‘Enough is Enough: World's Seafarers Will Now Exercise Right to Leave Ships Amid Covid-19 Failures’ (ITF, 15 June 2020) <www.itfseafarers.org/en/news/enough-enough-worlds-seafarers-will-now-exercise-right-leave-ships-amid-covid-19-failures>.

127 Human Rights at Sea, ‘Case Study: In Their Own Words – Eight Indian Seafarers Abandoned Off-Shore Walvis Bay, Namibia, Face Fatigue, Lack of Wages and Mental Health Issues’ (January 2019) <www.humanrightsatsea.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/HRAS_Case_Study_Abandonment_Walvis_Bay_Namibia_29_Jan_19_single_pages_SECURED.pdf>.

128 Doumbia-Henry (n 45) 281.

129 Gavouneli, M, ‘Protecting Women Fishers: The Gender Parameters of Labour Rights at Sea’ in Papanicolopulu, I (ed), Gender and the Law of the Sea (Brill 2019) 173–7Google Scholar.

130 ‘Supporting Seafarers on the Frontline of COVID-19’ (n 94).

131 IMO, ‘Coronavirus (COVID 19) – Personal Protective Equipment’ (Circular Letter No 4204/Add.15, 6 May 2020) para 2.

132 ‘Greater Access to PPE Called for by Concerned Seafarers’ (Human Rights at Sea, 13 April 2020) <www.humanrightsatsea.org/2020/04/13/greater-access-to-ppe-called-for-by-concerned-seafarers/>.

133 ‘Statement of the Officers of the STC’ (n 94) 2.

134 ILO, Guidelines for Port State Control Officers Carrying out Inspections under the Maritime Labour Convention, 2006 (ILO 2009) <https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---normes/documents/publication/wcms_101787.pdf>.

135 Art 3(2) of the Treaty on European Union (TEU); art 21 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU); Titles IV and V TFEU; art 45 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union [2012] OJ C326/02.

136 Council Conclusions on Covid-19 [2020] OJ C57/04, para 15; European Commission, ‘Proposal for a Council Recommendation on a Coordinated Approach to the Restriction of Free Movement in Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic’ COM(2020) 499 final (4 September 2020) 3–4.

137 ‘Covid-19’ (EurLex) <https://eur-lex.europa.eu/content/news/Covid19.html>.

138 European Commission, ‘Covid-19 Guidelines for Border Management Measures to Protect Health and Ensure the Availability of Goods and Essential Services’ C(2020) 1753 final (16 March 2020) para 6.

139 ibid para 8.

140 ibid para 9.

141 EMSA, ‘Guidance on the Gradual and Safe Resumption of Operations of Cruise Ships in the European Union in Relation to the COVID-19 Pandemic’ (27 July 2020).

142 ibid 7–11.

143 ibid 6.

144 ibid 15–32.

145 ibid 21.

146 Communication from the Commission, Guidelines concerning the exercise of the free movement of workers during COVID-19 outbreak (2020/C 102 I/03) [2020] OJ C102 I/12, paras 1–2.

147 European Commission, ‘Communication from the Commission on the Implementation of the Green Lanes under the Guidelines for Border Management Measures to Protect Health and Ensure the Availability of Goods and Essential Services’ C(2020) 1897 final (23 March 2020) 1.

148 European Commission, ‘Covid-19 Guidelines for border management measures to protect health and ensure the availability of goods and essential services’ (n 138) 1, 4.

149 ibid 4.

150 ibid 2.

151 European Commission, ‘Communication from the Commission, Guidelines on Protection of Health, Repatriation and Travel Arrangements for Seafarers, Passengers and Other Persons on Board Ships’ C(2020) 3100 final (8 April 2020) 1.

152 Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (n 135).

153 Galani, ‘Assessing Maritime Security and Human Rights: The Role of the EU and Its Member States in the Protection of Human Rights in the Maritime Domain’ (n 3) 336.

154 Council Directive 89/391/EC of 12 June 1989 on the introduction of measures to encourage improvements in the safety and health of workers at work [1989] OJ L183/1.

155 European Commission, ‘Communication from the Commission, Guidelines on protection of health, repatriation and travel arrangements for seafarers, passengers and other persons on board ships’ (n 151) 19.

156 ‘COVID-19: Guidance for the Workplace’ (EU-OSHA, 6 April 2020) <https://osha.europa.eu/en/highlights/covid-19-guidance-workplace>.

157 F Berrod and P Bruyas, ‘European Union: Are Borders the Antidote to the Covid-19 Pandemic?’ (The Conversation, 17 April 2020) <https://theconversation.com/european-union-are-borders-the-antidote-to-the-covid-19-pandemic-136643>.