Abstract
Urban atmospheric metallic element in PM2.5 is affected by multiple factors across spatial and temporal scales. Yet the coupling of metallic elements with PM2.5 and the relationship between metallic element concentrations and influencing factors are still poorly understood, which hampers the adoption of appropriate policies and measures to mitigate emission. Therefore, an hourly resolved measurement campaign was performed from March 2017 to February 2018 to investigate the characteristics of 17 metallic elements (i.e., K, Ca, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Ag, Cd, Ba, Au, Hg, and Pb) in PM2.5 using a CES Xact 625 multi-metals monitor in Chengdu, Southwest China. The hourly concentrations of all 17 studied metallic elements ranged from the detection limits to 27,630 ng·m−3, while the hourly PM2.5 values varied from 1.95 to 282.7 μg·m−3, with an average value of 51.4 ± 25.4 μg·m−3. The change of anthropogenic emissions and meteorological parameters in Chengdu jointly resulted in the unimodal diurnal and distinct seasonal variations of most metallic elements concentrations. Furthermore, the value of total metallic mass (TMM) might be extremely high when the concentration of PM2.5 is relatively low, indicating that the health risks of exposure to low PM2.5 could be underestimated in previous studies, in which the health risk assessment of exposure to PM2.5 had been dependent on PM2.5 concentration. The removal efficiency of rainfall on metallic elements and PM2.5 might vary depending on the rainfall intensity. Moderate rainfall has the highest removal efficiency for PM2.5 and TMM.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets of this paper are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Andronache C (2003) Estimated variability of below-cloud aerosol removal by rainfall for observed aerosol size distributions. Atmos Chem Phys 3:131–143. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-3-131-2003
Cai K, Li C, Na S (2019) Spatial distribution, pollution source, and health risk assessment of heavy metals in atmospheric depositions: a case study from the sustainable city of Shijiazhuang, China. Atmosphere 10:222. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10040222
Cancio JL, Castellano AV, Hernandez MC, Bethencourt RG, Ortega EM (2008) Metallic species in atmospheric particulate matter in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. J Hazard Mater 160:521–528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.03.026
Chang Y, Huang K, Xie M, Deng C, Zou Z, Liu S, Zhang Y (2018) First long-term and near real-time measurement of trace elements in China’s urban atmosphere: temporal variability, source apportionment and precipitation effect. Atmos Chem Phys 18:11793–11812. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-11793-2018
Chang X, Wang S, Zhao B, Xing J, Liu X, Wei L, Song Y, Wu W, Cai S, Zheng H, Ding D, Zheng M (2019) Contributions of inter-city and regional transport to PM2.5 concentrations in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region and its implications on regional joint air pollution control. Sci Total Environ 660:1191–1200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.474
Chegndu Bureau of Statistics. Chengdu Statistical Yearbook (2018) Available at: http://cdstats.chengdu.gov.cn/. Accessed 09 July 2021
Cui Y, Ji D, Chen H, Gao M, Maenhaut W, He J, Wang Y (2019) Characteristics and sources of hourly trace elements in airborne fine particles in Urban Beijing, China. J Geophys Res Atmos 124:11595–11613. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JD030881
Dall’Osto M, Querol X, Amato F, Karanasiou A, Lucarelli F, Nava S, Calzolai G, Chiari M (2013) Hourly elemental concentrations in PM2.5 aerosols sampled simultaneously at urban background and road site during SAPUSS – diurnal variations and PMF receptor modelling. Atmos Chem Phys 13:4375–4392. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-4375-2013
Duan J, Tan J, Hao J, Chai F (2014) Size distribution, characteristics and sources of heavy metals in haze episod in Beijing. J Environ Sci 26:189–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(13)60397-6
Duan Y, Wu Z, Zhang D, Zhang J (2016) Wet scavenging effect of precipitation on PM2.5 pollutants in Guiyang (in Chinese). Meteorol Sci Technol 44:458–462. https://doi.org/10.19517/j.cnki.1671-6345.2016.03.018
Furger M, Minguillón MC, Yadav V, Slowik JG, Hüglin C, Fröhlich R, Petterson K, Baltensperger U, Prévôt ASH (2017) Elemental composition of ambient aerosols measured with high temporal resolution using an online XRF spectrometer. Atmos Meas Tech 10:2061–2076. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-10-2061-2017
Gholizadeh A, Taghavi M, Moslem A, Neshat AA, LariNajafi M, Alahabadi A, Ahmadi E, Ebrahimi Aval H, Asour AA, Rezaei H, Gholami S, Miri M (2019) Ecological and health risk assessment of exposure to atmospheric heavy metals. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 184:109622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.109622
Glavas SD, Nikolakis P, Ambatzoglou D, Mihalopoulos N (2008) Factors affecting the seasonal variation of mass and ionic composition of PM2.5 at a central Mediterranean coastal site. Atmos Environ 42:5365–5373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.02.055
Guo J, Miao Y, Zhang Y, Liu H, Li Z, Zhang W, He J, Lou M, Yan Y, Bian L, Zhai P (2016) The climatology of planetary boundary layer height in China derived from radiosonde and reanalysis data. Atmos Chem Phys 16:13309–13319. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-13309-2016
Hleis D, Fernandez-Olmo I, Ledoux F, Kfoury A, Courcot L, Desmonts T, Courcot D (2013) Chemical profile identification of fugitive and confined particle emissions from an integrated iron and steelmaking plant. J Hazard Mater 250–251:246–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.01.080
Hu X, Zhang Y, Ding Z, Wang T, Lian H, Sun Y, Wu J (2012) Bioaccessibility and health risk of arsenic and heavy metals (Cd Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn and Mn) in TSP and PM2.5 in Nanjing, China. Atmos Environ 57:146–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.04.056
Hua Y, Cheng Z, Wang S, Jiang J, Chen D, Cai S, Fu X, Fu Q, Chen C, Xu B, Yu J (2015) Characteristics and source apportionment of PM2.5 during a fall heavy haze episode in the Yangtze River Delta of China. Atmos Environ 123:380–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.03.046
Huang H, Jiang Y, Xu X, Cao X (2018) In vitro bioaccessibility and health risk assessment of heavy metals in atmospheric particulate matters from three different functional areas of Shanghai, China. Sci Total Environ 610–611:546–554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.074
Ji D, Cui Y, Li L, He J, Wang L, Zhang H, Wang W, Zhou L, Maenhaut W, Wen T, Wang Y (2018) Characterization and source identification of fine particulate matter in urban Beijing during the 2015 Spring Festival. Sci Total Environ 628–629:430–440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.304
Ji W, Wang Y, Zhuang D (2019) Spatial distribution differences in PM2.5 concentration between heating and non-heating seasons in Beijing, China. Environ Pollut 248:574–583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.01.002
Kong SF, Li L, Li XX, Yin Y, Chen K, Liu DT, Yuan L, Zhang YJ, Shan YP, Ji YQ (2015) The impacts of firework burning at the Chinese Spring Festival on air quality: insights of tracers, source evolution and aging processes. Atmos Chem Phys 15:2167–2184. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-2167-2015
Lee BK, Hieu NT (2011) Seasonal variation and sources of heavy metals in atmospheric aerosols in a residential area of Ulsan, Korea. Aerosol Air Qual Res 11:679–688. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2010.10.0089
Li K, Liang T, Wang L (2016a) Risk assessment of atmospheric heavy metals exposure in Baotou, a typical industrial city in northern China. Environ Geochem Health 38:843–853. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-015-9765-1
Li Y, Zhang Z, Liu H, Zhou H, Fan Z, Lin M, Wu D, Xia B (2016b) Characteristics, sources and health risk assessment of toxic heavy metals in PM2.5 at a megacity of southwest China. Environ Geochem Health 38:353–362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-015-9722-z
Li Y, Chang M, Ding S, Wang S, NiD HuH (2017a) Monitoring and source apportionment of trace elements in PM2.5: implications for local air quality management. J Environ Manag 196:16–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.02.059
Li L, Tan Q, Zhang Y, Feng M, Qu Y, An J, Liu X (2017b) Characteristics and source apportionment of PM2.5 during persistent extreme haze events in Chengdu, southwest China. Environ Pollut 230:718–729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.07.029
Li R, Wang Z, Cui L, Fu H, Zhang L, Kong L, Chen W, Chen J (2019a) Air pollution characteristics in China during 2015–2016: spatiotemporal variations and key meteorological factors. Sci Total Environ 648:902–915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.181
Li X, Song H, Zhai S, Lu S, Kong Y, Xia H, Zhao H (2019b) Particulate matter pollution in Chinese cities: areal-temporal variations and their relationships with meteorological conditions (2015–2017). Environ Pollut 246:11–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.11.103
Liao T, Wang S, Ai J, Gui K, Duan B, Zhao Q, Zhang X, Jiang W, Sun Y (2017) Heavy pollution episodes, transport pathways and potential sources of PM2.5 during the winter of 2013 in Chengdu (China). Sci Total Environ 584–585:1056–1065. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.160
Liu S, Triantis K, Zhang L (2014) The design of an urban roadside automatic sprinkling system: Mitigation of PM2.5–10 in ambient air in megacities. Chin J Eng 2014:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/618109
Liu X, Huang H, Zou J, Zou CW, Zou YQ, Huang YX, Zhao GD, Chen Q (2016) Scavenging of rainfall on air pollutants in summer. (in Chinese). Environ Pollut Cont 38:20–24. https://doi.org/10.15985/j.cnki.1001-3865.2016.03.005
Liu Y, Xing J, Wang S, Fu X, Zheng H (2018) Source-specific speciation profiles of PM2.5 for heavy metals and their anthropogenic emissions in China. Environ Pollut 239:544–553. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.04.047
Ma Q, Wu Y, Zhang D, Wang X, Xia Y, Liu X, Tian P, Han Z, Xia X, Wang Y, Zhang R (2017) Roles of regional transport and heterogeneous reactions in the PM2.5 increase during winter haze episodes in Beijing. Sci Total Environ 599–600:246–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.04.193
Mao L, Liu R, Liao W, Wang X, Shao M, Liu SC, Zhang Y (2019) An observation-based perspective of winter haze days in four major polluted regions of China. Natl Sci Rev 6:515–523. https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwy118
Meng C, Cheng T, Gu X, Shi S, Wang W, Wu Y, Bao F (2019) Contribution of meteorological factors to particulate pollution during winters in Beijing. Sci Total Environ 656:977–985. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.365
Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People’s Repulic of China (2013) Report on the State of the Ecology and Environment in China. Available at: http://english.mee.gov.cn/Resources/Reports/soe/soe2011/201606/P020160601591756378883.pdf. Accessed 09 July 2021
Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People’s Repulic of China (2019) Report on the State of the Ecology and Environment in China. Available at: http://english.mee.gov.cn/Resources/Reports/soe/SOEE2019/202012/P020201215587453898053.pdf. Accessed 09 July 2021
Ouyang W, Guo B, Cai G, Li Q, Han S, Liu B, Liu X (2015) The washing effect of precipitation on particulate matter and the pollution dynamics of rainwater in downtown Beijing. Sci Total Environ 505:306–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.09.062
Pan YJ, Li Y, Chen JH, Shi JC, Tian H, Zhang J, Zhou J, Chen X, Liu Z, Qian J (2020) Method for high-resolution emission inventory for road vehicles in Chengdu based on traffic flow monitoring data (in Chinese). Environ Sci 41(8):3581–3590. https://doi.org/10.13227/j.hjkx.202002082
Park SS, Cho SY, Jo MR, Gong BJ, Park JS, Lee SJ (2014) Field evaluation of a near–real time elemental monitor and identification of element sources observed at an air monitoring supersite in Korea. Atmos Pollut Res 5:119–128. https://doi.org/10.5094/APR.2014.015
Qiao X, Ying Q, Li X, Zhang H, Hu J, Tang Y, Chen X (2018) Source apportionment of PM2.5 for 25 Chinese provincial capitals and municipalities using a source-oriented Community Multiscale Air Quality model. Sci Total Environ 612:462–471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.272
Qiao X, Guo H, Tang Y, Wang P, Deng W, Zhao X, Hu J, Ying Q, Zhang H (2019) Local and regional contributions to fine particulate matter in the 18 cities of Sichuan Basin, southwestern China. Atmos Chem and Phys 19(9):5791–5803. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-5791-2019
Rai P, Furger M, Slowik J, Canonaco F, Fröhlich R, Hüglin C, Minguillón MC, Petterson K, Baltensperger U, Prévôt ASH (2019) Source apportionment of highly time resolved trace elements during a firework episode from a rural freeway site in Switzerland. Atmos Chem Phys Discuss. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-2018-1229
Shen J, Tang A, Liu X, Kopsch J, Fangmeier A, Goulding K, Zhang F (2011) Impacts of pollution controls on air quality in Beijing during the 2008 Olympic Games. J Environ Qual 40:37–45. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2010.0360
Sofowote UM, Rastogi AK, Debosz J, Hopke PK (2014) Advanced receptormodeling of near–real–time, ambient PM2.5 and its associated components collected at an urban–industrial site in Toronto, Ontario. Atmos Pollut Res 5:13–23. https://doi.org/10.5094/APR.2014.003
Song M, Li X, Tan Q, Feng M, Qu Y, An J, Zhang Y (2019) Characteristics and formation mechanism of persistent extreme haze pollution events in Chengdu, southwestern China. Environ Pollut 251:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.04.081
Talbi A, Kerchich Y, Kerbachi R, Boughedaoui M (2018) Assessment of annual air pollution levels with PM1, PM2.5, PM10 and associated heavy metals in Algiers, Algeria. Environ Pollut 232:252–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.09.041
Tao J, Zhang L, Engling G, Zhang R, Yang Y, Cao J, Zhu C, Wang Q, Luo L (2013) Chemical composition of PM2.5 in an urban environment in Chengdu, China: importance of springtime dust storms and biomass burning. Atmos Res 122:270–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2012.11.004
Tao J, Gao J, Zhang L, Zhang R, Che H, Zhang Z, Lin Z, Jing J, Cao J, Hsu SC (2014) PM2.5 pollution in a megacity of southwest China: source apportionment and implication. Atmos Chem Phys 14:8679–8699. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-8679-2014
Tian YZ, Wang J, Peng X, Shi GL, Feng YC (2014) Estimation of the direct and indirect impacts of fireworks on the physicochemical characteristics of atmospheric PM10 and PM 2.5. Atmos Chem Phys 14:9469–9479. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-9469-2014
Tian HZ, Zhu CY, Gao JJ, Cheng K, Hao JM, Wang K, Hua SB, Wang Y, Zhou JR (2015) Quantitative assessment of atmospheric emissions of toxic heavy metals from anthropogenic sources in China: Historical trend, spatial distribution, uncertainties, and control policies. Atmos Chem Phys 15:10127–10147. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-10127-2015
Tiwari S, Tunved P, Hopke PK, Srivastava AK, Bisht DS, Pandey AK (2016) Observations of ambient trace gas and PM10 concentrations at Patna, Central Ganga Basin during 2013–2014: the influence of meteorological variables on atmospheric pollutants. Atmos Res 180:138–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2016.05.017
Visser S, Slowik JG, Furger M, Zotter P, Bukowiecki N, Dressler R, Flechsig U, Appel K, Green DC, Tremper AH, Young DE, Williams PI, Allan JD, Herndon SC, Williams LR, Mohr C, Xu L, Ng NL, Detournay A, Barlow JF, Halios CH, Fleming ZL, Baltensperger U, Prévôt ASH (2014) Kerb and urban increment of highly time-resolved trace elements in PM10, PM2.5 and PM1.0 winter aerosol in London during ClearfLo 2012. Atmos Chem Phys 15:2367–2386. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-2367-2015
Wang G, Cheng S, Wei W, Yang X, Wang X, Jia J, Lang J, Lv Z (2017) Characteristics and emission-reduction measures evaluation of PM2.5 during the two major events: APEC and Parade. Sci Total Environ 595:81–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.03.231
Wang H, Qiao B, Zhang L, Yang F, Jiang X (2018a) Characteristics and sources of trace elements in PM2.5 in two megacities in Sichuan Basin of southwest China. Environ Pollu 242:1577–1586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.07.125
Wang H, Tian M, Chen Y, Shi G, Liu Y, Yang F, Zhang L, Deng L, Yu J, Peng C, Cao X (2018b) Seasonal characteristics, formation mechanisms and source origins of PM2.5 in two megacities in Sichuan Basin, China. Atmos Chem Phys 18:865–881. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-865-2018
Wang S, Yu R, Shen H, Wang S, Hu Q, Cui J, Yan Y, Huang H, Hu G (2019) Chemical characteristics, sources, and formation mechanisms of PM2.5 before and during the Spring Festival in a coastal city in Southeast China. Environ Pollut 251:442–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.04.050
World Health Organization (WHO, 2000) Air Quality Guidelines for Europe, available at: http://helid.digicollection.org/pdf/s13481e/s13481e.pdf. Accessed 09 July 2021
Wu QR, Wang SX, Zhang L, Song JX, Yang H, Meng Y (2012) Update of mercury emissions from China’s primary zinc, lead and copper smelters, 2000–2010. Atmos Chem Phys 12:11153–11163. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-12-11153-2012
Xu W, Liu X, Liu L, Dore AJ, Tang A, Lu L, Wu Q, Zhang Y, Hao T, Pan Y, Chen J, Zhang F (2019) Impact of emission controls on air quality in Beijing during APEC 2014: implications from water-soluble ions and carbonaceous aerosol in PM2.5 and their precursors. Atmos Environ 210:241–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.04.050
Yang Y, Chan CY, Tao J, Lin M, Engling G, Zhang Z, Zhang T, Su L (2012) Observation of elevated fungal tracers due to biomass burning in the Sichuan Basin at Chengdu City, China. Sci Total Environ 431:68–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.05.033
Yoo JM, Lee YR, Kim D, Jeong MJ, Stockwell WR, Kundu PK, Oh SM, Shin DB, Lee SJ (2014) New indices for wet scavenging of air pollutants (O3, CO, NO2, SO2, and PM10) by summertime rain. Atmos Environ 82:226–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.10.022
Yu S (2014) Water spray geoengineering to clean air pollution for mitigating haze in China’s cities. Environ Chem Lett 12:109–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-013-0444-0
Yu Y, He S, Wu X, Zhang C, Yao Y, Liao H, Wang Q, Xie M (2019) PM2.5 elements at an urban site in Yangtze River Delta, China: high time-resolved measurement and the application in source apportionment. Environ Pollut 253:1089–1099. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.07.096
Zeng Y, Cao Y, Qiao X, Seyler BC, Tang Y (2019) Air pollution reduction in China: recent success but great challenge for the future. Sci Total Environ 663:329–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.262
Zhan Y, Luo Y, Deng X, Chen H, Grieneisen ML, Shen X, Zhu L, Zhang M (2017) Spatiotemporal prediction of continuous daily PM2.5 concentrations across China using a spatially explicit machine learning algorithm. Atmos Environ 155:129–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.02.023
Zhang F, Wang ZW, Cheng HR, Lv XP, Gong W, Wang XM, Zhang G (2015a) Seasonal variations and chemical characteristics of PM2.5 in Wuhan, central China. Sci Total Environ 518–519:97–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.02.054
Zhang H, Wang Y, Hu J, Ying Q, Hu XM (2015b) Relationships between meteorological parameters and criteria air pollutants in three megacities in China. Environ Res 140:242–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2015.04.004
Zhang XX, Sharratt B, Chen X, Wang ZF, Liu LY, Guo YH, Chen LJH, S, Yang WY, (2017) Dust deposition and ambient PM10 concentration in northwest China: spatial and temporal variability. Atmos Chem Phys 17:1699–1711. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-17-1699-2017
Zhang C, Lu X, Zhai J, Chen H, Yang X, Zhang Q, Zhao Q, Fu Q, Sha F, Jin J (2018a) Insights into the formation of secondary organic carbon in the summertime in urban Shanghai. J Environ Sci 72:118–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2017.12.018
Zhang K, Chai F, Zheng Z, Yang Q, Zhong X, Fomba KW, Zhou G (2018b) Size distribution and source of heavy metals in particulate matter on the lead and zinc smelting affected area. J Environ Sci 71:188–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2018.04.018
Zhao PS, Dong F, He D, Zhao XJ, Zhang XL, Zhang WZ, Yao Q, Liu HY (2013) Characteristics of concentrations and chemical compositions for PM2.5 in the region of Beijing, Tianjin, and Hebei, China. Atmos Chem Phys 13:4631–4644. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-4631-2013
Zheng Z, Xu G, Li Q, Chen C, Li J (2019) Effect of precipitation on reducing atmospheric pollutant over Beijing. Atmos Pollut Res 10:1443–1453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2019.04.001
Zhou B, Liu D, Wei J, Peng H, Niu W, Xia J (2015) A preliminary analysis on scavenging effect of precipitation on aerosol particles (in Chinese). Resour Environ Yangtze Basin 24:160–170. https://doi.org/10.11870/cjlyzyyhj2015Z1022
Zhou Z, Tan Q, Liu H, Deng Y, Wu K, Lu C, Zhou X (2019) Emission characteristics and high-resolution spatial and temporal distribution of pollutants from motor vehicles in Chengdu, China. Atmos Pollut Res 10(3):749–758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2018.12.002
Funding
This study was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41771248).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jin, Q., Liu, Y., Feng, M. et al. High-resolution temporal metallic elements in PM2.5 in Chengdu, Southwest China: variations, extreme events, and effects of meteorological parameters. Air Qual Atmos Health 14, 1893–1909 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-021-01065-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-021-01065-z