Bird species richness across a Northern Andean city: Effects of size, shape, land cover, and vegetation of urban green spaces
Introduction
Cities reflect modern human life and its impacts on the planet. Besides topography and climate, human dynamics influence the composition and structure of cities, where natural landscapes are transformed into novel ecosystems with reduced and structurally simple green spaces (Aronson et al., 2017; Paz Silva et al., 2015; Shih, 2018). Non-native introduced vegetation dominates urban green spaces (Nielsen et al., 2013), which are mainly managed to improve public health and social interaction (Dooling et al., 2006; McDonnell, 2011; Wolch et al., 2014). Although some bird species benefit from non-native vegetation in cities that offer novel resources (Chace and Walsh, 2006; Jasmani et al., 2017), planted or naturalized vegetation has limited contribution in maintaining local biodiversity (Aronson et al., 2017; Chong et al., 2014).
Recent thinking in urban planning includes biodiversity conservation as a key factor to make cities sustainable (Botzat et al., 2016; Puppim De Oliveira et al., 2011; Threlfall and Kendal, 2018), but decision-makers might fail to implement better practices without ecological studies, as responses to urbanization depend on city characteristics and surrounding landscape (Aronson et al., 2014; Kowarik, 2011; Mcdonald et al., 2009). This is particularly challenging when cities are located in biodiversity hotspots with high endemism and species turnover such as the Tropical Andes (Cincotta et al., 2000; Rahbek et al., 2019), where urban bird studies are mainly species lists that have limited use in biodiversity conservation (Ortega-Álvarez and Macgregor-Fors, 2011).
Birds are well-known bioindicators in urban ecosystems (Macgregor-Fors et al., 2015; Marzluff et al., 2001; Mckinney, 2008) as alpha biodiversity measurements like species richness respond to green space features at local scales (Marzluff et al., 2001; Mckinney, 2008; Tryjanowski et al., 2017): larger and more regular-shaped urban green spaces (e.g. squared, rounded) are richer because they promote species persistence due to species–area relationships (Beninde et al., 2015; Fernández-Juricic and Jokimäki, 2001; Nielsen et al., 2013); they also mitigate urban environmental pressures and edge effects (Fernández-Juricic, 2004), whereas smaller and less regular-shaped green spaces may act as ecological traps for most sensitive taxa (Lepczyk et al., 2017), increasing risks of local extinction that reduce bird species richness.
The problem in highly developed Latin American cities is that green spaces are surrounded by impervious surfaces, making it difficult to manage the area and shape features of individual green spaces (Leveau et al., 2017; Ortega-Álvarez and MacGregor-Fors, 2009; Paz Silva et al., 2015). Therefore, most populated cities in the Northern Andes focus urban planning on ecological connectivity frameworks to mitigate the effect of habitat loss and fragmentation (Andrade et al., 2013), but local governments also might enhance plant richness and abundance to increase vegetation complexity structure, which is supposed to promote habitat heterogeneity and local biodiversity (Collas et al., 2017; Roy et al., 2012).
Managing site-specific features related to vegetation is an effective alternative to promote local biodiversity in small green spaces (Fernández-Juricic and Jokimäki, 2001; Morelli et al., 2017). Enhancing tree or understory species richness might increase bird species richness (Ferenc et al., 2014; Nielsen et al., 2013; Paker et al., 2014), as well as habitat heterogeneity, especially when this is driven by native vegetation and natural regeneration (Chace and Walsh, 2006; Fontana et al., 2011; Matthies et al., 2017; Threlfall et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2015). Thus, less human-managed urban green spaces resembling natural habitats of city surroundings usually increase local bird species richness via colonization of less tolerant species to urbanization (Callaghan et al., 2019; Fernández-Juricic, 2004; Marzluff, 2005).
Here, we present one of the first studies that evaluate effects of site-specific features on local bird diversity (response variable) in urban ecosystems of the Northern Andes, a region with growing urbanization–biodiversity conflicts (Bax and Francesconi, 2019). We performed an exploratory analysis expecting that, besides area and shape features, urban green spaces dominated by native understory and native tree species would increase bird species richness. We focused on a response variable and several predictors that could be easily accessible to urban planners, and thus, prone to be included in green space local management and biodiversity monitoring.
Section snippets
Study area
The municipality of Medellín is located along the Aburrá Valley in Colombian Central Andes (6° 15′ N, 75° 34′ W; Fig. 1), in the Tropical Andes biodiversity hotspot (Myers et al., 2000): 445 bird species and 2603 vascular plant species have been reported in the municipality between ca. 1450 and 3000 m a. s. l. (Alcaldía de Medellín, 2015). This hotspot with a high level of endemism is driven by the Andean uplift and the derived biogeographical complexity of Northwestern South America (Brumfield
Results
Urban green spaces ranged between 0.11 and 103.73 ha of size (9.44 ± 24.17 on average), and between 0.005 and 0.124 m−1 of perimeter/area ratio (0.059 ± 0.029), across a landscape with significant variation in percentage of trees, grass–shrubs, and impervious surfaces (Kruskal–Wallis test: F-value = 18.86, p-value <0.001). We found land cover differences particularly when comparing impervious surfaces (44.31 % ±23.83) with trees (25.85 % ±14.69; Wilcoxon rank sum test: adjusted p-value <0.001)
Discussion
Several studies have suggested that native vegetation can mitigate the negative effects of urbanization on local bird diversity (e.g. Chace and Walsh, 2006; Chong et al., 2014; Dale, 2018; Threlfall et al., 2017); thus, although we expected that bird species richness would respond to species–area relationships (Beninde et al., 2015; Fernández-Juricic and Jokimäki, 2001; Nielsen et al., 2013), we also expected that it would respond to richness or abundance of native trees and understory.
Conclusions
In a highly developed Andean city, features that best explained bird species richness across urban green spaces were size and shape of urban green spaces, percentage of impervious surfaces and grass–shrubs (artificial coverage and incipient natural regeneration, respectively), and dominance of introduced trees in habitat structure. The effect of features such as species richness or abundance of native trees and understory had lower effects on bird species richness, mainly due to their low
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Jaime A. Garizábal-Carmona: Conceptualization, Sampling design, Data acquisition- Curation- Analysis, Data interpretation, Writing- Original draft preparation, Visualization, Investigation. N. J Mancera-Rodríguez: Supervision, Validation, Writing- Reviewing and Editing
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
We thank the University of Antioquia Herbarium (HUA) and all their staff, especially Wilson Renfijo, Ricardo Callejas, Felipe Cardona, Álvaro Roldán, and Heriberto David. We also thank Paula Morales, Tomás Hinestroza, Samuel Monsalve, Andrés Mercado, Deysi Carmona, Wilson Rodríguez, Manuel Bernal, and Luisa Arboleda for supporting vegetation assessments, Natalia Ruiz and Luz Morales for GIS support, Victor Martínez-Arias for statistical support. We thank Benjamin Low and Amanda Colón for
References (96)
- et al.
Conservation gaps and priorities in the Tropical Andes biodiversity hotspot: implications for the expansion of protected areas
J. Environ. Manage.
(2019) - et al.
Unexploited opportunities in understanding liveable and biodiverse cities. A review on urban biodiversity perception and valuation
Glob. Environ. Chang. Part A
(2016) - et al.
Go greener, feel better? The positive effects of biodiversity on the well-being of individuals visiting urban and peri-urban green areas
Landsc. Urban Plan.
(2015) - et al.
Urban effects on native avifauna: a review
Landsc. Urban Plan.
(2006) - et al.
Not all green is as good: different effects of the natural and cultivated components of urban vegetation on bird and butterfly diversity
Biol. Conserv.
(2014) Spatial and temporal analysis of the distribution of forest specialists in an urban-fragmented landscape (Madrid, Spain) Implications for local and regional bird conservation
Landsc. Urban Plan.
(2004)- et al.
How to manage the urban green to improve bird diversity and community structure
Landsc. Urban Plan.
(2011) Birds of different biogeographic origins respond in contrasting ways to urbanization
Biol. Conserv.
(2011)- et al.
Environmental and landscape factors influencing ant and plant diversity in suburban riparian corridors
Landsc. Urban Plan.
(2011) Novel urban ecosystems, biodiversity, and conservation
Environ. Pollut.
(2011)
Effectiveness of corridor vegetation depends on urbanization tolerance of forest birds in central Tokyo, Japan
Urban For. Urban Green.
Urban effects, distance, and protected areas in an urbanizing world
Landsc. Urban Plan.
Urbanization as a major cause of biotic homogenization
Biol. Conserv.
Taxonomic diversity, functional diversity and evolutionary uniqueness in bird communities of Beijing’s urban parks: effects of land use and vegetation structure
Urban For. Urban Green
Cemeteries support avian diversity likewise urban parks in European cities: assessing taxonomic, evolutionary and functional diversity
Urban For. Urban Green
‘Wild’ in the city context: do relative wild areas offer opportunities for urban biodiversity?
Landsc. Urban Plan
Contrasting natural regeneration and tree planting in fourteen North American cities
Urban For. Urban Green
Dusting-off the file: a review of knowledge on urban ornithology in Latin America
Landsc. Urban Plan
Living in the big city: effects of urban land-use on bird community structure, diversity, and composition
Landsc. Urban Plan
The effect of plant richness and urban garden structure on bird species richness, diversity and community structure
Landsc. Urban Plan
Multiple effects of urbanization on the biodiversity of developing countries: the case of a fast-growing metropolitan area (Concepción, Chile)
Biol. Conserv.
Cities and biodiversity: perspectives and governance challenges for implementing the convention on biological diversity (CBD) at the city level
Biol. Conserv.
The living among the dead: cemeteries as urban forests, now and in the future
Urban For. Urban Green
A systematic quantitative review of urban tree benefits, costs, and assessment methods across cities in different climatic zones
Urban For. Urban Green
Local and management variables outweigh landscape effects in enhancing the diversity of different taxa in a big metropolis
Biol. Conserv.
Urban residents’ perceptions of neighbourhood nature: Does the extinction of experience matter?
Biol. Conserv.
The distinct ecological and social roles that wild spaces play in urban ecosystems
Urban For. Urban Green
Bird diversity in urban green space: a large-scale analysis of differences between parks and cemeteries in Central Europe
Urban For. Urban Green
Urban green space, public health, and environmental justice: the challenge of making cities “just green enough.”
Landsc. Urban Plan
Evaluation of microhabitats for wild birds in a Shanghai urban area park
Urban For. Urban Green
Public perceptions and preferences regarding lawns and their alternatives in China: a case study of Xi’an
Urban For. Urban Green
Propuesta para la gestión integral de la Biodiversidad y los Servicios Ecosistémicos en Medellín (Integral management of Biodiversity and Environmental Services of Medellín). Parque Explora
Assembling the pieces: a framework for the integration of multi-functional ecological main structure in the emerging urban region of Bogotá, Colombia
Urban Ecosyst.
A global analysis of the impacts of urbanization on bird and plant diversity reveals key anthropogenic drivers
Proc. R. Soc.
Biodiversity in the city: key challenges for urban green space management
Front. Ecol. Environ.
Relation between green spaces and bird community structure in an urban area in Southeast Brazil
Urban Ecosyst.
Biodiversity in cities needs space: a meta-analysis of factors determining intra-urban biodiversity variation
Ecol. Lett.
Expedition Field Techniques: Bird Surveys
Comparing implementations of estimation methods for spatial econometrics
J. Stat. Softw.
Land use and species diversity along an urban gradient
Ecol. Appl.
Historical diversification of birds in Northwestern South America: a molecular perspective on the role of vicariant events
Evolution
Crecimiento Urbano Y Acceso a Oportunidades: Un Desafío Para América Latina (Urban Sprawl and Oportunities Access: a Latin American Challenge)
Glmulti: an R package for easy automated model selection with (generalized) linear models
J. Stat. Softw.
Heterogeneous urban green areas are bird diversity hotspots: insights using continental-scale citizen science data
Landsc. Ecol.
Effects of area size, heterogeneity, isolation, and disturbances on urban park avifauna in a highly populated tropical city
Urban Ecosyst.
Human population in the biodiversity hotspots
Nature
Urban development, land sharing and land sparing: the importance of considering restoration
J. Appl. Ecol.
Urban bird community composition influenced by size of urban green spaces, presence of native forest, and urbanization
Urban Ecosyst.
Cited by (16)
Exploring biodiversity's impact on mental well-being through the social-ecological lens: Emphasizing the role of biodiversity characteristics and nature relatedness
2024, Environmental Impact Assessment ReviewTropical bird communities benefit from regular-shaped and naturalised urban green spaces with water bodies
2023, Landscape and Urban PlanningCitation Excerpt :This addresses the challenge in urban areas, which present a matrix of diverse land cover patches and types that give rise to varying degrees of edge effects with beneficial or detrimental effects on native avifauna (Litteral & Shochat, 2017). Natural or semi-natural vegetation in urban matrices have been observed to have a positive influence on bird diversity (Rico-Silva et al., 2020; Garizábal-Carmona & Mancera-Rodríguez, 2021). This can be attributed to more structural complexity and a higher proportion of native vegetation, which can sustain greater bird diversity (Threlfall et al., 2016).
Wildness and habitat quality drive spatial patterns of urban biodiversity
2022, Landscape and Urban PlanningCitation Excerpt :Contrastingly, smaller-sized or edged shapes with a higher perimeter:area ratio, UGBS are potentially more exposed to threats and the interference cover of human activities (higher edge effect) (Turner & Gardner, 2001). Studies in large-sized cities evidenced that the perimeter:area ratio and indicators related to shape and connectedness to surrounding areas (edge effect) are better predictors of bird biodiversity than merely the size of UGBS (Garizábal-Carmona & Mancera-Rodríguez, 2021; Shih, 2018). Despite the positive effect of UGBS size on species richness, it remains poorly understood how size thresholds on individual patch size may influence biodiversity conservation in urbanized landscapes (Lepczyk et al., 2017).
Built vs. Green cover: an unequal struggle for urban space in Medellín (Colombia)
2024, Urban Ecosystems