Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Advancing Understanding of Autism within Families: Caregiver Broader Autism Phenotype Traits Differentially Relate to Parenting Behavior

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Although caregiver characteristics such as personality and psychopathology strongly relate to parenting, little is known about how a caregiver’s own autistic or broader autism phenotype (BAP) traits relate to parenting practices. This is a significant gap in our understanding of individual differences in parenting given the rising prevalence of autism diagnoses among adults, with higher levels of the population reporting subclinical traits related to autism (i.e., BAP traits of aloofness, pragmatic language difficulties, and rigidity). To further our understanding of families wherein caregivers identify as autistic or as having autistic traits, we examined (1) whether caregiver BAP traits, considered both categorically and continuously, were associated with parenting practices; (2) how the three distinct BAP traits differentially related to parenting, and (3) whether BAP traits were associated with parenting over and above other mental health symptoms. Caregivers (n = 138) reported on BAP traits, multiple domains of parenting using the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire and the Parental Emotion Style Questionnaire, and co-occurring attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) traits and internalizing symptoms. BAP traits were associated with parenting both categorically and continuously, with the three BAP subscales showing differential associations with parenting outcomes, even when controlling for internalizing symptoms and ADHD traits. Aloofness was associated with lower scores on measures of emotion dismissing, positive parenting, and involvement, whereas pragmatic language difficulties were associated with lower scores on emotion coaching and higher scores on poor monitoring. Rigidity was uniquely associated with higher scores on emotion dismissing. Implications for advancing understanding of individual differences in parenting, considering systemic and contextual influences on parenting, and supporting parenting in the general population and for autistic adults are discussed.

Highlights

  • Broader autism phenotype (BAP) traits are associated with parenting practices.

  • This association exists even when accounting for parental mental health symptoms.

  • Different dimensions of BAP traits were associated with specific parenting practices.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Identity-first language (i.e. “autistic person”) is used throughout this paper. Recent research has suggested that the majority of autistic adults prefer identity-first language to person-first language (i.e. “person with autism”; Bottema-Beutel et al., 2021; Kenny et al., 2016).

References

  • Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology, 4(1p2), 1–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bottema-Beutel, K., Kapp, S. K., Lester, J. N., Sasson, N. J., & Hand, B. N. (2021). Avoiding ableist language: suggestions for autism researchers. Autism in Adulthood, 3(1), 18–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brugha, T. S., McManus, S., Bankart, J., Scott, F., Purdon, S., Smith, J., Bebbington, P., Jenkins, R., & Meltzer, H. (2011). Epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders in adults in the community in England. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(5), 459–465.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buck, T. R., Viskochil, J., Farley, M., Coon, H., McMahon, W. M., Morgan, J., & Bilder, D. A. (2014). Psychiatric comorbidity and medication use in adults with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(12), 3063–3071.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., & Gosling, S. D. (2016). Amazon’s Mechanical Turk: A new source of inexpensive, yet high-quality data? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(1), 3–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cassidy, S. A., Gould, K., Townsend, E., Pelton, M., Robertson, A. E., & Rodgers, J. (2020). Is camouflaging autistic traits associated with suicidal thoughts and behaviours? Expanding the interpersonal psychological theory of suicide in an undergraduate student sample. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 50(10), 3638–3648.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chronis-Tuscano, A., Raggi, V. L., Clarke, T. L., Rooney, M. E., Diaz, Y., & Pian, J. (2008). Associations between maternal attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms and parenting. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(8), 1237.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Conley, C. S., Caldwell, M. S., Flynn, M., Dupre, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2004). Parenting and mental health. In Hoghughi, M. S., & Long, N. (Eds.), Handbook of parenting: Theory and research for practice (276–285). Sage.

  • Constantino, J. N., & Todd, R. D. (2003). Autistic traits in the general population: a twin study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(5), 524–530.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dissanayake, C., Richdale, A., Kolivas, N., & Pamment, L. (2019). An exploratory study of autism traits and parenting. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50(7), 2593–2606.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farrell, A. F., Bowen, G. L., & Swick, D. C. (2014). Network supports and resiliency among US military spouses with children with special health care needs. Family Relations, 63(1), 55–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farrell, A. F., & Krahn, G. L. (2014). Family life goes on: Disability in contemporary families. Family Relations, 63(1), 1–6.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, C. J. (2009). An effect size primer: a guide for clinicians and researchers. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 40(5), 532–538.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J. (1991). The Alabama parenting questionnaire. Unpublished rating scale, University of Alabama.

  • Frick, P. J., Christian, R. E., & Wootton, J. M. (1999). Age trends in the association between parenting practices and conduct problems. Behavior Modification, 23(1), 106–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenlee, J. L., Winter, M. A., & Diehl, J. J. (2018). Family level processes associated with outcomes for individuals with autism spectrum disorder: a scoping review. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 53, 41–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, E., Stoessel, B., & Herbert, S. (2011). Psychopathology and parenting practices of parents of preschool children with behavior problems. Parenting, 11(4), 239–263.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoekstra, R. A., Bartels, M., Verweij, C. J., & Boomsma, D. I. (2007). Heritability of autistic traits in the general population. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 161(4), 372–377.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hurley, R. S., Losh, M., Parlier, M., Reznick, J. S., & Piven, J. (2007). The broad autism phenotype questionnaire. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(9), 1679–1690.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jaswal, V. K., & Akhtar, N. (2019). Being versus appearing socially uninterested: challenging assumptions about social motivation in autism. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 42, E82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenny, L., Hattersley, C., Molins, B., Buckley, C., Povey, C., & Pellicano, E. (2016). Which terms should be used to describe autism? Perspectives from the UK autism community. Autism, 20(4), 442–462.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Adler, L., Ames, M., Demler, O., Faraone, S., Hiripi, E., Howes, M. J., Jin, R., Secnik, K., Spencer, T., & Ustun, T. B. (2005). The World Health Organization Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS): a short screening scale for use in the general population. Psychological Medicine, 35(2), 245–256.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lagacé-Séguin, D. G., & Coplan, R. J. (2005). Maternal emotional styles and child social adjustment: Assessment, correlates, outcomes and goodness of fit in early childhood. Social Development, 14(4), 613–636.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landry, O., & Chouinard, P. A. (2016). Why we should study the broader autism phenotype in typically developing populations. Journal of Cognition and Development, 17(4), 584–595.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lau, W. Y. P., Peterson, C. C., Attwood, T., Garnett, M. S., & Kelly, A. B. (2016). Parents on the autism continuum: Links with parenting efficacy. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 26, 57–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lunkenheimer, E. S., Shields, A. M., & Cortina, K. S. (2007). Parental emotion coaching and dismissing in family interaction. Social Development, 16(2), 232–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masi, A., DeMayo, M. M., Glozier, N., & Guastella, A. J. (2017). An overview of autism spectrum disorder, heterogeneity and treatment options. Neuroscience Bulletin, 33(2), 183–193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12264-017-0100-y.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., Lucke, C. M., Nelson, K. M., & Stallworthy, I. C. (2021). Resilience in development and psychopathology: Multisystem perspectives. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 17, 521–549.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, R. W., Gondoli, D. M., Gibson, B. S., Steeger, C. M., & Morrissey, R. A. (2017). Contributions of maternal attention-deficit hyperactivity and oppositional defiant disorder symptoms to parenting. Parenting, 17(4), 281–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Möller, E. L., Nikolić, M., Majdandžić, M., & Bögels, S. M. (2016). Associations between maternal and paternal parenting behaviors, anxiety and its precursors in early childhood: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 45, 17–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murza, K. A., & Nye, C. (2013). Pragmatic language intervention for adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism: a feasibility study. Contemporary Issues in Communication Science & Disorders, 40, 85–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ophir, Y., Sisso, I., Asterhan, C. S., Tikochinski, R., & Reichart, R. (2020). The Turker Blues: hidden factors behind increased depression rates among Amazon’s Mechanical Turkers. Clinical Psychological Science, 8(1), 65–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pelton, M. K., & Cassidy, S. A. (2017). Are autistic traits associated with suicidality? A test of the interpersonal‐psychological theory of suicide in a non‐clinical young adult sample. Autism Research, 10(11), 1891–1904.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pinquart, M. (2016). Associations of parenting styles and dimensions with academic achievement in children and adolescents: a meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 28(3), 475–493.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pinquart, M. (2017). Associations of parenting dimensions and styles with externalizing problems of children and adolescents: an updated meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 53(5), 873.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rispoli, K. M., Malcolm, A. L., Nathanson, E. W., & Mathes, N. E. (2019). Feasibility of an emotion regulation intervention for young children with autism spectrum disorder: A brief report. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 67, 101420.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ros, R., & Graziano, P. A. (2019). Group PCIT for preschoolers with autism spectrum disorder and externalizing behavior problems. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(5), 1294–1303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruzich, E., Allison, C., Smith, P., Watson, P., Auyeung, B., Ring, H., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2015). Measuring autistic traits in the general population: a systematic review of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) in a nonclinical population sample of 6,900 typical adult males and females. Molecular Autism, 6(1), 2.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sasson, N. J., Lam, K. S., Childress, D., Parlier, M., Daniels, J. L., & Piven, J. (2013). The Broad Autism Phenotype Questionnaire: prevalence and diagnostic classification. Autism Research, 6(2), 134–143.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Saxbe, D., Rossin-Slater, M., & Goldenberg, D. (2018). The transition to parenthood as a critical window for adult health. American Psychologist, 73(9), 1190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schleider, J. L., & Weisz, J. R. (2015). Using Mechanical Turk to study family processes and youth mental health: A test of feasibility. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(11), 3235–3246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taraban, L., & Shaw, D. S. (2018). Parenting in context: revisiting Belsky’s classic process of parenting model in early childhood. Developmental Review, 48, 55–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Umberson, D., Pudrovska, T., & Reczek, C. (2010). Parenthood, childlessness, and well‐being: a life course perspective. Journal of marriage and family, 72(3), 612–629.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Steijn, D. J., Oerlemans, A. M., de Ruiter, S. W., van Aken, M. A., Buitelaar, J. K., & Rommelse, N. N. (2013). Are parental autism spectrum disorder and/or attention-deficit/Hyperactivity disorder symptoms related to parenting styles in families with ASD (+ ADHD) affected children? European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 22(11), 671–681.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vostanis, P., Graves, A., Meltzer, H., Goodman, R., Jenkins, R., & Brugha, T. (2006). Relationship between parental psychopathology, parenting strategies and child mental health. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 41(7), 509–514.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., O’Hara, M. W., Naragon-Gainey, K., Koffel, E., Chmielewski, M., Kotov, R., & Ruggero, C. J. (2012). Development and validation of new anxiety and bipolar symptom scales for an expanded version of the IDAS (the IDAS-II). Assessment, 19(4), 399–420.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woodman, A. C. (2014). Trajectories of stress among parents of children with disabilities: a dyadic analysis. Family Relations, 63(1), 39–54.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank the Institute for Scholarship in the Liberal Arts at the University of Notre Dame for funding this research.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Virginia Tech Department of Psychology, Williams Hall, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA

    Elizabeth A. DeLucia, Olivia Semones, Kasey Stanton & Christina G. McDonnell

  2. Western University Department of Psychology, Social Science Centre, London, ON, N6A 5C2, Canada

    Kasey Stanton

Authors
  1. Elizabeth A. DeLucia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Olivia Semones
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kasey Stanton
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Christina G. McDonnell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Elizabeth A. DeLucia.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

DeLucia, E.A., Semones, O., Stanton, K. et al. Advancing Understanding of Autism within Families: Caregiver Broader Autism Phenotype Traits Differentially Relate to Parenting Behavior. J Child Fam Stud 31, 753–763 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-02022-1

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-02022-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation