Abstract
Evidence suggests that in the United States we live in a stalking culture— a culture in which stalking is normalized, minimized, and romanticized through various cultural institutions. We also live in an era when romantic interactions and dating are increasingly taking place online. Bringing together these ideas, the present study examines perceptions of lay observers of the cyberstalking of women with a focus on gender and stalking context. Drawing on data from an original vignette study via an Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) survey (n = 727), we examine whether (a) observer’s gender, (b) four types of stalking contexts (ex-boyfriend, coworker, one-time date, and stranger), and (c) individual differences in observers’ attitudes regarding gender and sexuality beliefs (sexual double standards, benevolent sexism, and hostile sexism) impact lay perceptions of cyberstalking. We found that compared to men, women are more likely to label cyberstalking and to deem cyberstalking as less socially acceptable. Compared to the stranger stalking scenario, participants were less likely to label the other three scenarios as stalking; additionally, participants rated ex-boyfriend stalking, relative to stranger stalking, as more acceptable. We also found that attitudinal measures predict higher acceptability ratings across stalking contexts, and hostile sexist beliefs mediate the relationship between observers’ gender and likelihood of labeling the situation as stalking. Our results suggest that the minimization and normalization of cyberstalking may be driven not only by one’s gender, but also by a culturally accepted hierarchy of stalking narratives as well as gender attitudes.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abrams, D., Viki, G. T., Masser, B., & Bohner, G. (2003). Perceptions of stranger and acquaintance rape: The role of benevolent and hostile sexism in victim blame and rape proclivity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(1), 111–125. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.84.1.111.
Ahlgrim, B. J. M. (2015). Cyber stalking: Impact of gender, cyber stalker-victim relationship and proximity. [unpublished master’s thesis]. The University of North Dakota. https://commons.und.edu/theses/1733/.
Anderson, K. J., & Accomando, C. (1999). Madcap misogyny and romanticized victim-blaming: discourses of stalking in “There’s Something about Mary.” Women and Language, 22(1), 24–28. https://search.proquest.com/docview/198817302?accountid=6724/.
Baum, K., Catalano, S., Rand, M., & Rose, K. (2009). Stalking victimization in the United States (NCJ 224527). Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. https://doi.org/10.1037/e513932010-001.
Blaauw, E., Winkel, F. W., Arensman, E., Sheridan, L., & Freeve, A. (2002). The toll of stalking: The relationship between features of stalking and psychopathology of victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17(1), 50–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260502017001004.
Black, M. C., Basile, K. C., Breiding, M. J., Smith, S. G., Walters, M. L., Merrick, M. T., ... Stevens, M. R. (2011). National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey, 2010. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pub/NISVSpubs.html.
Buchwald, E., Fletcher, P. R., & Roth, M. (Eds.). (2005). Transforming a rape culture. Minneapolis: Milkweed Editions. https://doi.org/10.1086/495017.
Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., & Gosling, S. D. (2011). Amazon's mechanical Turk: A new source of inexpensive, yet high-quality, data? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(1), 3–5. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610393980.
Burt, M. R. (1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38(2), 217–230. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.38.2.217.
Carpenter, L. M. (2001). The ambiguity of “having sex”: The subjective experience of virginity loss in the United States. Journal of Sex Research, 38(2), 127–139. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490109552080.
Cass, A. I. (2011). Defining stalking: The influence of legal factors, extralegal factors, and particular actions on judgments of college students. Western Criminology Review, 12(1), 1. https://westerncriminology.org/publications/western_criminology_review/.
Connell, R. W. (1987). Gender and power. Sydney: Allen and Unwin. https://doi.org/10.1177/027046768800800490.
Connell, R. W. (1995). Masculinities. Cambridge: Polity Press. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137404749.0008.
Dardis, C. M., & Gidycz, C. A. (2017). The frequency and perceived impact of engaging in in-person and cyber unwanted pursuit after relationship break-up among college men and women. Sex Roles, 76(1–2), 56–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0667-1.
Davis, K. E., Swan, S. C., & Gambone, L. J. (2012). Why doesn’t he just leave me alone? Persistent pursuit: A critical review of theories and evidence. Sex Roles, 66(5–6), 328–339. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9882-3.
Dennison, S. M., & Thomson, D. M. (2009). Community perceptions of stalking: What are the fundamental concerns? Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 7(2), 159–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218710009524982.
Dietz, N. A., & Martin, P. Y. (2007). Women who are stalked: Questioning the fear standard. Violence Against Women, 13(7), 750–776. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801207302698.
Dunlap, E. E., Hodell, E. C., Golding, J. M., & Wasarhaley, N. E. (2012). Mock jurors’ perception of stalking: The impact of gender and expressed fear. Sex Roles, 66(5–6), 405–417. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9970-z.
Dunn, J. L. (2002). Courting disaster, intimate stalking, culture, and criminal justice. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers. https://doi.org/10.2307/1556591.
Durán, M., Moya, M., Megías, J. L., & Viki, G. T. (2010). Social perception of rape victims in dating and married relationships: The role of perpetrator’s benevolent sexism. Sex Roles, 62(7–8), 505–519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9676-7.
Durán, M., Moya, M., & Megías, J. L. (2011). It's his right, it's her duty: Benevolent sexism and the justification of traditional sexual roles. Journal of Sex Research, 48(5), 470–478. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2010.513088.
Eaton, A. A., & Matamala, A. (2014). The relationship between heteronormative beliefs and verbal sexual coercion in college students. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43(7), 1443–1457. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0284-4.
Eaton, A. A., & Rose, S. M. (2012). Scripts for actual first date and hanging-out encounters among young heterosexual Hispanic adults. Sex Roles, 67(5–6), 285–299. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0190-y.
Ford, J. V. (2017). Sexual assault on college hookups: The role of alcohol and acquaintances. Sociological Forum, 32(2), 381–405. https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12335.
Ford, J. V. (2018). ‘Going with the flow’: How college men’s experiences of unwanted sex are produced by gendered interactional pressures. Social Forces, 96, 1303–1324. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sox066.
Ford, J. V., & Becker, A. (2020). 'A situation where there aren't rules': Unwanted sex for gay, bisexual, and questioning men. Sociological Science, 7, 57–74. https://doi.org/10.15195/v7.a3.
Gagnon, J. H., & Simon, W. (1973). Sexual conduct: The social sources of human sexuality. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/.
Gerber, G. L., Cronin, J. M., & Steigman, H. J. (2004). Attributions of blame in sexual assault to perpetrators and victims of both genders. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34(10), 2149–2165. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2004.tb02694.x.
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3), 491–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491.
Gordon, M. T., & Riger, S. (1991). The female fear: The social cost of rape. Champaign: University of Illinois Press. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1981.tb01071.x.
Hird, M. J. (2017). Heteronormativity and sexual coercion: Adolescents practicing gender. In M. J. Hird (Ed.), Engendering violence: Heterosexual interpersonal violence from childhood to adulthood (pp. 44–66). Abingdon: Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315256481.
Hirsch, J. S., Khan, S. R., Wamboldt, A., & Mellins, C. A. (2019). Social dimensions of sexual consent among cisgender heterosexual college students: Insights from ethnographic research. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64, 26–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.06.011.
Hlavka, H. R. (2014). Normalizing sexual violence: Young women account for harassment and abuse. Gender & Society, 28(3), 337–358. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243214526468.
Hollander, J. A. (2001). Vulnerability and dangerousness: The construction of gender through conversation about violence. Gender & Society, 15(1), 83–109. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124301015001005.
Impett, E. A., & Peplau, L. A. (2003). Sexual compliance: Gender, motivational, and relationship perspectives. Journal of Sex Research, 40(1), 87–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490309552169.
Jackson, S. (1978). The social context of rape: Sexual scripts and motivation. Women's Studies International Quarterly, 1(1), 27–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0148-0685(78)90311-1.
Jackson, S. (2006). Interchanges: Gender, sexuality and heterosexuality: The complexity (and limits) of heteronormativity. Feminist Theory, 7(1), 105–121.
Kinkade, P., Burns, R., & Fuentes, A. I. (2005). Criminalizing attractions: Perceptions of stalking and the stalker. Crime and Delinquency, 51, 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/00111287032622462.
Kitzinger, C. (2005). Heteronormativity in action: Reproducing the heterosexual nuclear family in after-hours medical calls. Social Problems, 52(4), 477–498. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2005.52.4.477.
Knudson-Martin, C., & Mahoney, A. R. (Eds.). (2009). Couples, gender, and power: Creating change in intimate relationships. New York: Springer Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1891/9780826117564.
Koss, M. P. (1988). Hidden rape: Incidence, prevalence, and descriptive characteristics of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of college students. Sexual Assault, 2, 3–25. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429493201-6.
Lambert, E. G., Smith, B., Geistman, J., Cluse-Tolar, T., & Jiang, S. (2013). Do men and women differ in their perceptions of stalking: An exploratory study among college students. Violence and Victims, 28(2), 195–209. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.09-201.
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (2012). Gender and stalking: Current intersections and future directions. Sex Roles, 66(5–6), 418–426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0093-3.
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., Palarea, R. E., Cohen, J., & Rohling, M. L. (2000). Breaking up is hard to do: Unwanted pursuit behaviors following the dissolution of a romantic relationship. Violence and Victims, 15, 73–90. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.15.1.73.
Lefkowitz, E. S., Shearer, C. L., Gillen, M. M., & Espinosa-Hernandez, G. (2014). How gendered attitudes relate to women’s and men’s sexual behaviors and beliefs. Sexuality and Culture, 18(4), 833–846. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-014-9225-6.
Lippman, J. R. (2018). I did it because I never stopped loving you: The effects of media portrayals of persistent pursuit on beliefs about stalking. Communication Research, 45(3), 394–421. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650215570653.
Lippman, J. R., & Ward, L. M. (2014). Associations between stalking myth endorsement and unwanted pursuit behaviors among college students. Ann Arbor: Aggression Research Program Report, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan. https://doi.org/10.7826/isr-um.05.3020.0001.
Madriz, E. I. (1997). Images of criminals and victims: A study on women's fear and social control. Gender & Society, 11(3), 342–356.
Martinez-Pecino, R., & Durán, M. (2019). I love you but I cyberbully you: The role of hostile sexism. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(4), 812–825. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124397011003005.
McKeon, B., McEwan, T. E., & Luebbers, S. (2015). “It's not really stalking if you know the person”: Measuring community attitudes that normalize, justify and minimise stalking. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 22(2), 291–306. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2014.945637.
Meloy, J. R. (1996). Stalking (obsessional following): A review of some preliminary studies. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 1(2), 147–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/1359-1789(95)00013-5.
Messerschmidt, J. (1993). Masculinities and crime: Critique and reconceptualization of theory. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield. https://doi.org/10.2307/2076088.
Messerschmidt, J. W. (2012). Engendering gendered knowledge: Assessing the academic appropriation of hegemonic masculinity. Men and Masculinities, 15(1), 56–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X11428384.
Miglietta, A., & Acquadro Maran, D. (2017). Gender, sexism and the social representation of stalking: What makes the difference? Psychology of Violence, 7(4), 563–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000070.
Muehlenhard, C. L., & Felts, A. S. (1998). Sexual Beliefs Scale. In C. M. Davis (Ed.), Handbook of sexuality-related measures (pp. 116–118). Newbury Park: Sage Publications, Inc.
Owens, J. G. (2017). A gender-biased definition: Unintended impacts of the fear requirement in stalking victimization. Crime & Delinquency, 63(11), 1339–1362. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128715615883.
Pittaro, M. L. (2007). Cyber stalking: An analysis of online harassment and intimidation. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, 1(2), 180–197. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18794.
Rich, A. (1980). Compulsory heterosexuality and lesbian existence. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 5(4), 631–660. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429499142-72.
Rollero, C., Glick, P., & Tartaglia, S. (2014). Psychometric properties of short versions of the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory and Ambivalence Toward Men Inventory. TPM-Testing, Psychometrics, Methodology in Applied Psychology, 21(2), 149–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/t33821-000.
Rose, S., & Frieze, I. H. (1993). Young singles' contemporary dating scripts. Sex Roles, 28(9–10), 499–509. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00289677.
Rosseel, Y. (2012). Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119579038.ch1.
Ryan, K. M. (2011). The relationship between rape myths and sexual scripts: The social construction of rape. Sex Roles, 65(11–12), 774–782. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0033-2.
Schippers, M. (2007). Recovering the feminine other: Masculinity, femininity, and gender hegemony. Theory and Society, 36(1), 85–102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-007-9022-4.
Scott, A. J., & Sheridan, L. (2011). ‘Reasonable’ perceptions of stalking: The influence of conduct severity and the perpetrator–target relationship. Psychology, Crime & Law, 17(4), 331–343. https://doi.org/10.1080/10683160903203961.
Scott, A. J., Lloyd, R., & Gavin, J. (2010). The influence of prior relationship on perceptions of stalking in the United Kingdom and Australia. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37(11), 1185–1194. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854810378812.
Scott, A. J., Rajakaruna, N., Sheridan, L., & Sleath, E. (2014). International perceptions of stalking and responsibility: The influence of prior relationship and severity of behavior. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 41(2), 220–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854813500956.
Sheffield, C. J. (1987). Sexual terrorism: The social control of women. In B. B. Hess & M. M. Ferree (Eds.), Analyzing gender: A handbook of social science research (pp. 171–189). Newbury Park: Sage Publications, Inc. https://psycnet.apa.org/home.
Sheffield, C. J. (1989). The invisible intruder: Women's experiences of obscene phone calls. Gender & Society, 3(4), 483–488. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124389003004006.
Sheridan, L., & Davies, G. M. (2001). Violence and the prior victim–stalker relationship. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 11(2), 102–116. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbm.375.
Sheridan, L., & Scott, A. J. (2010). Perceptions of harm: Verbal versus physical abuse in stalking scenarios. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37(4), 400–416. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854809359743.
Sheridan, L., Davies, G. M., & Boon, J. C. (2001). Stalking: Perceptions and prevalence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16(2), 151–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626001016002004.
Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7(4), 422–445. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.4.422.
Simon, W., & Gagnon, J. H. (1986). Sexual scripts: Permanence and change. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 15(2), 97–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01542219.
Sinclair, H. C. (2012). Stalking myth-attributions: Examining the role of individual and contextual variables on attributions in unwanted pursuit scenarios. Sex Roles, 66(5–6), 378–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9853-8.
Sinclair, H. C., & Frieze, I. H. (2002). Initial courtship behavior and stalking: How should we draw the line. In K. E. Davies, I. H. Frieze, & R. D. Maiuro (Eds.), Stalking: Perspectives on victims and perpetrators (Vol. 15, pp. 186–211). New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.15.1.23.
Snell, W. E., Belk, S. S., & Hawkins, R. C. (1986). The stereotypes about male sexuality scale (SAMSS): Components, correlates, antecedents, consequences, and counselor bias. Social and Behavioral Sciences Documents, 16, 10 (Ms. No. 2747). https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1988.7.1.42.
Spitzberg, B. H. (2002). The tactical topography of stalking victimization and management. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 3(4), 261–288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838002237330.
Spitzberg, B. H., & Cadiz, M. (2002). The media construction of stalking stereotypes. Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture, 9(3), 128–149 https://www.semanticscholar.org/.
Spitzberg, B. H., & Cupach, W. R. (2004). The dark side of relationship pursuit: From attraction to obsession and stalking. Abingdon: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410609908-4.
Stanko, E. (1985). Intimate intrusions: Women’s experience of male violence. Abingdon: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203521014.
Stanko, E. A. (1993). The case of fearful women: Gender, personal safety and fear of crime. Women & Criminal Justice, 4(1), 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1300/j012v04n01_06.
Stanko, E. A. (1995). Women, crime, and fear. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 539(1), 46–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716295539001004.
Stanko, E. A. (1997). Safety talk: conceptualizing women's risk assessment as a “technology of the soul.” Theoretical Criminology, 1(4), 479–499. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480697001004004
Thompson, C. M., Dennison, S. M., & Stewart, A. (2012). Are female stalkers more violent than male stalkers? Understanding gender differences in stalking violence using contemporary sociocultural beliefs. Sex Roles, 66(5–6), 351–365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9911-2.
Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (1998). Prevalence, incidence, and consequences of violence against women: Findings from the National Violence against Women Survey, 1995–1996. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/183781.pdf
Warr, M. (1984). Fear of victimization: Why are women and the elderly more afraid? Social Science Quarterly, 65(3), 681–702 http://www.ncjrs.gov/App/publications/abstract.aspx?ID=95848.
Weinberg, J. D., Freese, J., & McElhattan, D. (2014). Comparing data characteristics and results of an online factorial survey between a population-based and a crowdsource-recruited sample. Sociological Science, 1, 292–310. https://doi.org/10.15195/v1.a19.
Weller, M., Hope, L., & Sheridan, L. (2013). Police and public perceptions of stalking: The role of prior victim–offender relationship. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28(2), 320–339. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260512454718.
Wiederman, M. W. (2005). The gendered nature of sexual scripts. The Family Journal, 13(4), 496–502. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480705278729.
Winstead, B. A., Derlega, V. J., & Rose, S. (1997). Gender and close relationships. Newbury Park: Sage Publications, Inc.. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1993.tb01165.x.
Yanowitz, K. L. (2006). Influence of gender and experience on college students’ stalking schemas. Violence and Victims, 21(1), 91–100. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.21.1.91.
Yanowitz, K. L., & Yanowitz, J. L. (2012). The role of gender in the generation of stalking scripts. Sex Roles, 66(5–6), 366–377. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9867-2.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Drs. Laura Carpenter and Shaul Kelner for their feedback and support during early versions of our research. We also thank Dr. Mary Clare Lennon, Angelica Puzio, Rachel Jacobson, and Peter Ladreaux for their contributions and thoughtful feedback. The first and third author would also like to thank ZSC and the Forsyth County Courthouse for a vivid and unforgettable firsthand experience of stalking violence and the failures of the criminal justice system in protecting targets of stalking.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
We do not have any potential conflicts of interest to report for this manuscript.
Informed Consent
We were approved by the Vanderbilt University Institutional Review Board to conduct this study. Participants were provided with a consent form, and informed consent was required in order to participate. All participants were required to be above the age of 18.
We are prepared to provide documentation of our compliance with ethical standards.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
ESM 1
(DOCX 169 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Becker, A., Ford, J.V. & Valshtein, T.J. Confusing Stalking for Romance: Examining the Labeling and Acceptability of Men’s (Cyber)Stalking of Women. Sex Roles 85, 73–87 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01205-2
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01205-2