Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Short- and long-term learning of job interview with a serious game in virtual reality: influence of eyestrain, stereoscopy, and apparatus

  • S.I. : XR (VR, AR, MR) and Immersive Learning Environments
  • Published:
Virtual Reality Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

Do apparatuses and eyestrain have effects on learning performances and quality of experience? Materials and Methods: 42 participants played a serious game simulating a job interview with a Samsung Gear VR Head-Mounted Display (HMD) or a computer screen. Participants were randomly assigned to 3 groups: PC, HMD biocular, and HMD stereoscopy (S3D). Participants played the game thrice. Eyestrain was assessed pre- and post-exposure with six optometric measures. Learning performances were obtained in-game. Quality of experience was measured with questionnaires. Results: eyestrain was higher with HMDs than PC based on Punctum Proximum of accommodation but similar between biocular and S3D. Knowledge gain and retention were similar with HMDs and PC based on scores and response time. All groups improved response time but without statistically significant differences between HMDs and PC. Visual discomfort difference was statistically significant between PC and HMDs (biocular and S3D). Flow difference was statistically significant between PC and HMDs (biocular and S3D), with the PC group reporting higher Flow than HMD-S3D. Conclusion: short-term learning is similar between PC and HMDs. Groups initially using HMDs continued improving during long-term learning but without statistically significant difference compared to PC. Eyestrain and visual discomfort were higher with HMDs than PC. Flow was higher with the PC group. Our results show that eyestrain does not seem to decrease learning.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

© Manzalab

Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abich J, Parker J, Murphy JS, Eudy M (2021) A review of the evidence for training effectiveness with virtual reality technology. Virtual Real. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-020-00498-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alexander AL, Brunyé T, Sidman J (2005) From gaming to training: a review of studies on fidelity, immersion, presence, and buy-in and their effects on transfer in pc-based simulations and games. Aptima Inc Woburn, MA. https://doi.org/10.1037/e500852012-001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alhassan M, Alhamad F, Bokhary K, Almustanyir A (2021) Effects of virtual reality head-mounted displays on oculomotor functions. Int J Ophthalmol Vis Sci 6:10. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijovs.20210601.12

  • Alhusuny A, Cook M, Khalil A et al (2020) Impact of accommodation, convergence and stereoacuity on perceived symptoms and surgical performance among surgeons. Surg Endosc. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00464-020-08167-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ashraf A, Whelan M, Balfe P, O’Sullivan R (2013) 3D simulation versus 2D enhances ability in standardised laparoscopic tasks. Int J Surg 11:599–685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2013.06.067

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Banks MS, Read JCA, Allison RS, Watt SJ (2012) Stereoscopy and the human visual system. SMPTE Motion Imaging J 121:24–43. https://doi.org/10.5594/j18173

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernhardt KA, Poltavski D (2021) Symptoms of convergence and accommodative insufficiency predict engagement and cognitive fatigue during complex task performance with and without automation. Appl Ergon 90:103152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2020.103152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bodzin A, Junior RA, Hammond T, Anastasio D (2020) Investigating engagement and flow with a placed-based immersive virtual reality game. J Sci Educ Technol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-020-09870-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boughzala I (2015) A field application to vet a serious game toward learning objectives. In: 2015 48th Hawaii international conference on system Sciences. pp 626–634

  • Bowman DA, Sowndararajan A, Ragan ED, Kopper R (2009) Higher levels of immersion improve procedure memorization performance. In: Proceedings of the 15th joint virtual reality eurographics conference on virtual environments. Eurographics Association, Goslar, DEU, pp 121–128

  • Bracq M-S, Michinov E, Arnaldi B et al (2019) Learning procedural skills with a virtual reality simulator: an acceptability study. Nurse Educ Today 79:153–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2019.05.026

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buttussi F, Chittaro L (2017) Effects of different types of virtual reality display on Presence and learning in a safety training scenario. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Graph, pp 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1109/tvcg.2017.2653117

  • Buttussi F, Chittaro L (2021) A comparison of procedural safety training in three conditions: virtual reality headset, smartphone, and printed materials. IEEE Trans Learn Technol 14:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1109/TLT.2020.3033766

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calderón A, Ruiz M, Orta E (2017) Integrating serious games as learning resources in a software project management course: the case of ProDec. In: 2017 IEEE/ACM 1st international workshop on software engineering curricula for millennials (SECM). pp 21–27

  • Checa D, Bustillo A (2020) A review of immersive virtual reality serious games to enhance learning and training. Multimed Tools Appl 79:5501–5527. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-019-08348-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chittaro L (2016) Designing serious games for safety education: “Learn to Brace” versus traditional pictorials for aircraft passengers. IEEE Trans vis Comput Graph 22:1527–1539. https://doi.org/10.1109/tvcg.2015.2443787

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  • Cho T-H, Chen C-Y, Wu P-J et al (2017) The comparison of accommodative response and ocular movements in viewing 3D and 2D displays. Displays 49:59–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.displa.2017.07.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark DB, Tanner-Smith EE, Killingsworth SS (2016) Digital games, design, and learning: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Rev Educ Res 86:79–122. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315582065

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cowan N (2008) Chapter 20 What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? In: Sossin WS, Lacaille J-C, Castellucci VF, Belleville S (eds) Progress in brain research. Elsevier, pp 323–338

  • Damian I, Baur T, Lugrin B et al (2015) Games are better than books: in-situ comparison of an interactive job interview game with conventional training. In: Conati C, Heffernan N, Mitrovic A, Verdejo MF (eds) Artificial intelligence in education. Springer, Cham, pp 84–94

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Daniel F, Kapoula Z (2019) Induced vergence-accommodation conflict reduces cognitive performance in the Stroop test. Sci Rep. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-37778-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emoto M, Niida T, Okano F (2005) Repeated vergence adaptation causes the decline of visual functions in watching stereoscopic television. J Display Technol 1:328–340. https://doi.org/10.1109/jdt.2005.858938

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Engeser S, Rheinberg F (2008) Flow, performance and moderators of challenge-skill balance. Motiv Emot 32:158–172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-008-9102-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fergo C, Burcharth J, Pommergaard H-C et al (2017) Three-dimensional laparoscopy vs 2-dimensional laparoscopy with high-definition technology for abdominal surgery: a systematic review. Am J Surg 213:159–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjsurg.2016.07.030

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman J, Avons SE, Pearson DE, IJsselsteijn WA (1999) Effects of sensory information and prior experience on direct subjective ratings of presence. Presence Teleoper Virtual Environ 8:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1162/105474699566017

  • Freina L, Ott M (2015) A literature review on immersive virtual reality in education: state of the art and perspectives. In: eLearning and software for education (eLSE). Bucharest, Romania

  • Fuchs P (2018) The challenges and risks of democratization of VR-AR. In: Arnaldi B, Guitton P, Moreau G (eds) Virtual reality and augmented reality. Wiley, pp 289–301

  • Fuchs P (2017) Virtual reality headsets—a theoretical and pragmatic approach, 1st edn. CRC Press, London, UK

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Gaggioli A, Bassi M, Delle fave A (2003) Quality of experience in virtual environments. In: Riva G, Davide F, Ijsselsteijn WA (eds.), Being there: concepts, effects and measurement of user presence in synthetic environments, 1st edn. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IOS Press

  • Gallear W, Lameras P, Stewart C (2014) Serendipitous learning serious games: a pilot study. In: 2014 international conference on interactive mobile communication technologies and learning (IMCL2014). pp 247–251

  • Giessen HW (2015) Serious games effects: an overview. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 174:2240–2244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.881

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guo J, Weng D, Been-Lirn Duh H, et al (2017) Effects of using HMDs on visual fatigue in virtual environments. In: 2017 IEEE virtual reality (VR). IEEE, Los Angeles, CA, USA, pp 249–250

  • Guo J, Weng D, Zhang Z et al (2019) Subjective and objective evaluation of visual fatigue caused by continuous and discontinuous use of HMDs. J Soc Inform Display 27:108–119. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsid.750

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamari J, Shernoff DJ, Rowe E et al (2016) Challenging games help students learn: an empirical study on engagement, Flow and immersion in game-based learning. Comput Hum Behav 54:170–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.07.045

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Han J, Bae SH, Suk H-J (2017) Comparison of visual discomfort and visual fatigue between head-mounted display and smartphone. Electron Imaging 2017:212–217. https://doi.org/10.2352/issn.2470-1173.2017.14.hvei-146

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirota M, Kanda H, Endo T et al (2019) Comparison of visual fatigue caused by head-mounted display for virtual reality and two-dimensional display using objective and subjective evaluation. Ergonomics 62:759–766. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2019.1582805

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman DM, Girshick AR, Akeley K, Banks MS (2008) Vergence–accommodation conflicts hinder visual performance and cause visual fatigue. J vis 8:1–30. https://doi.org/10.1167/8.3.33

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howard MC, Gutworth MB (2020) A meta-analysis of virtual reality training programs for social skill development. Comput Educ 144:103707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103707

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huang H-M, Rauch U, Liaw S-S (2010) Investigating learners’ attitudes toward virtual reality learning environments: based on a constructivist approach. Comput Educ 55:1171–1182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.05.014

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huckauf A, Eberhardt LV (2019) Information processing in real and in stereoscopic environments. In: Proceedings of Mensch und computer 2019. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, pp 1–9

  • Hupont I, Gracia J, Sanagustín L, Gracia MA (2015) How do new visual immersive systems influence gaming QoE? A use case of serious gaming with Oculus Rift. In: 2015 Seventh international workshop on quality of multimedia experience (QoMEX). pp 1–6

  • Iskander J, Hossny M, Nahavandi S (2019) Using biomechanics to investigate the effect of VR on eye vergence system. Appl Ergon 81:102883. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2019.102883

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iwasaki T (1993) Effects of a visual task with cognitive demand on dynamic and steady-state accommodation. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 13:285–290. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-1313.1993.tb00470.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs J, Wang X, Alexa M (2019) Keep it simple: depth-based dynamic adjustment of rendering for head-mounted displays decreases visual comfort. ACM Trans Appl Percept 16:16:1–16:16. https://doi.org/10.1145/3353902

  • Jiang B, Hung GK, Ciuffreda KJ (2002) Models of vergence and accommodation-vergence interactions. In: Hung GK, Ciuffreda KJ (eds) Models of the visual system. Springer, US, Boston, MA, pp 341–384

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan AD, Cruit J, Endsley M et al (2020) the effects of virtual reality, augmented reality, and mixed reality as training enhancement methods: a meta-analysis. Hum Factors. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720820904229

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keebler J (2011) Effects Of 3d stereoscopy, visuo-spatial working memory, and perceptions of simulation experience on the memorization of confusable objects. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Central Florida

  • Keller K, Colucci D (1998) Perception in HMDs: what is it in head-mounted displays (HMDs) that really make them all so terrible? pp 46–53

  • Kim H, Ke F (2017) Effects of game-based learning in an OpenSim-supported virtual environment on mathematical performance. Interact Learn Environ 25:543–557. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2016.1167744

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kozulin P, Ames SL, McBrien NA (2009) Effects of a head-mounted display on the oculomotor system of children. Optom vis Sci 86:845–856. https://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0b013e3181adff42

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krokos E, Plaisant C, Varshney A (2018) Virtual memory palaces: immersion aids recall. Virtual Real. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-018-0346-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kulshreshth A, Schild J, LaViola JJ (2012) Evaluating user performance in 3D stereo and motion enabled video games. In: Proceedings of the international conference on the foundations of digital games. association for computing machinery, New York, NY, USA, pp 33–40

  • Kweon SH, Kweon HJ, Kim S et al (2018) A brain wave research on VR (virtual reality) usage: comparison between VR and 2D video in EEG measurement. In: Nunes IL (ed) Advances in human factors and systems interaction. Springer, Cham, pp 194–203

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Leder J, Horlitz T, Puschmann P et al (2019) Comparing immersive virtual reality and powerpoint as methods for delivering safety training: Impacts on risk perception, learning, and decision making. Saf Sci 111:271–286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2018.07.021

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Limniou M, Roberts D, Papadopoulos N (2008) Full immersive virtual environment CAVETM in chemistry education. Comput Educ 51:584–593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2007.06.014

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Limperos A, Waddell TF, Ivory AH, Ivory JD (2014) Psychological and physiological responses to stereoscopic 3D presentation in handheld digital gaming: comparing the experiences of frequent and infrequent game players. Presence Teleoper Virtual Environ 23:341–353. https://doi.org/10.1162/PRES_a_00204

  • Long Y, Shen Y, Guo D et al (2020) The effects of consumer-grade virtual reality headsets on adult visual function. Semin Ophthalmol 35:170–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/08820538.2020.1776342

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loup-Escande E, Jamet E, Ragot M et al (2017) Effects of stereoscopic display on learning and user experience in an educational virtual environment. Int J Human Comput Interact 33:115–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2016.1220105

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovreglio R, Duan X, Rahouti A et al (2021) Comparing the effectiveness of fire extinguisher virtual reality and video training. Virtual Real 25:133–145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-020-00447-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Makransky G, Lilleholt L, Aaby A (2017) Development and validation of the multimodal presence scale for virtual reality environments: a confirmatory factor analysis and item response theory approach. Comput Hum Behav 72:276–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.02.066

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matsuura Y (2019) Aftereffect of stereoscopic viewing on human body II. In: Takada H, Miyao M, Fateh S (eds) Stereopsis and hygiene. Springer, Singapore, pp 89–99

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • McIntire JP, Havig PR, Geiselman EE (2014) Stereoscopic 3D displays and human performance: a comprehensive review. Displays 35:18–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.displa.2013.10.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mistry M, Roach VA, Wilson TD (2013) Application of stereoscopic visualization on surgical skill acquisition in novices. J Surg Educ 70:563–570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsurg.2013.04.006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mohamed Elias Z, Batumalai UM, Azmi ANH (2019) Virtual reality games on accommodation and convergence. Appl Ergon 81:102879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2019.102879

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mon-Williams M, Wann JP (1998) Binocular virtual reality displays: when problems do and don’t occur. Human Factors J Human Factors Ergon Soc 40:42–49. https://doi.org/10.1518/001872098779480622

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mon-Williams M, Warm JP, Rushton S (1993) Binocular vision in a virtual world: visual deficits following the wearing of a head-mounted display. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 13:387–391. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-1313.1993.tb00496.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moreno R, Mayer RE (2002) Learning science in virtual reality multimedia environments: role of methods and media. J Educ Psychol 94:598–610. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0663.94.3.598

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mukai A, Yamagishi Y, Hirayama MJ (2011) Effects of stereoscopic 3D contents on the process of learning to build a handmade PC. Knowl Manag E-Learn 3:491–506. https://doi.org/10.5392/jkca.2010.10.2.138

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Munsamy AJ, Paruk H, Gopichunder B et al (2020) The effect of gaming on accommodative and vergence facilities after exposure to virtual reality head-mounted display. J Optom 13:163–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optom.2020.02.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Panke K, Pladere T, Velina M, et al (2019) Ocular performance evaluation: how prolonged near work with virtual and real 3D image modifies our visual system. In: Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on applications of intelligent systems. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, pp 1–5

  • Papastergiou M (2009) Digital game-based learning in high school computer science education: impact on educational effectiveness and student motivation. Comput Educ 52:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2008.06.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson R (2009) Review paper: human factors of stereo displays: an update. J Soc Inf Display 17:987. https://doi.org/10.1889/JSID17.12.987

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson R, Winterbottom MD, Pierce BJ (2006) Perceptual issues in the use of head-mounted visual displays. Human Factors J Human Factors Ergon Soc 48:555–573. https://doi.org/10.1518/001872006778606877

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pavlas D, Heyne K, Bedwell W et al (2010) Game-based learning: the impact of flow state and videogame self-efficacy. Proc Human Factors Ergon Soc Ann Meet 54:2398–2402. https://doi.org/10.1177/154193121005402808

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pollard KA, Oiknine AH, Files BT et al (2020) Level of immersion affects spatial learning in virtual environments: results of a three-condition within-subjects study with long intersession intervals. Virtual Real 24:783–796. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-019-00411-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Price A, Lee H-S (2010) The effect of two-dimensional and stereoscopic presentation on middle school students’ performance of spatial cognition tasks. J Sci Educ Technol 19:90–103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-009-9182-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Price A, Lee H-S, Subbarao M et al (2015) Comparing short- and long-term learning effects between stereoscopic and two-dimensional film at a planetarium. Sci Educ 99:1118–1142. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21185

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ray AB, Deb S (2016) Smartphone based virtual reality systems in classroom teaching—a study on the effects of learning outcome. In: 2016 IEEE eighth international conference on technology for education (T4E). pp 68–71

  • Rebenitsch L, Owen C (2021) Estimating cybersickness from virtual reality applications. Virtual Real 25:165–174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-020-00446-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rößing C (2016) Human visual perception. In: Terzis A (ed) Handbook of camera monitor systems: the automotive mirror-replacement technology based on ISO 16505. Springer, Cham, pp 279–312

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Rotter P (2017) Why did the 3D revolution fail?: The present and future of stereoscopy [commentary]. IEEE Technol Soc Mag 36:81–85. https://doi.org/10.1109/MTS.2017.2654294

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rushton SK, Riddell PM (1999) Developing visual systems and exposure to virtual reality and stereo displays: some concerns and speculations about the demands on accommodation and vergence. Appl Ergon 30:69–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0003-6870(98)00044-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmoll L, Veit M, Roy M, Capobianco A (2014) Serious game et apprentissage en réalité virtuelle: résultats d’une étude préliminaire sur la mémorisation en langue étrangère. Synergies de pays germanophones

  • Schor CM (1992) A dynamic model of cross-coupling between accommodation and convergence: simulations of step and frequency responses. Optom vis Sci 69:258–269. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006324-199204000-00002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schrader C, Bastiaens TJ (2012) The influence of virtual presence: effects on experienced cognitive load and learning outcomes in educational computer games. Comput Hum Behav 28:648–658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.11.011

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schroeder BL, Bailey SKT, Johnson CI, Gonzalez-Holland E (2017) Presence and usability do not directly predict procedural recall in virtual reality training. In: Stephanidis C (ed) HCI international 2017—posters’ extended abstracts. Springer, Cham, pp 54–61

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Shen R, Weng D, Guo J et al (2019) Effects of dynamic disparity on visual fatigue caused by watching 2D videos in HMDs. In: Wang Y, Huang Q, Peng Y (eds) Image and graphics technologies and applications. Springer, Singapore, pp 310–321

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Shibata T, Kim J, Hoffman DM, Banks MS (2011) The zone of comfort: predicting visual discomfort with stereo displays. J vis 11:1–29. https://doi.org/10.1167/11.8.11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shu Y, Huang Y-Z, Chang S-H, Chen M-Y (2019) Do virtual reality head-mounted displays make a difference? A comparison of Presence and self-efficacy between head-mounted displays and desktop computer-facilitated virtual environments. Virtual Real 23:437–446. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-018-0376-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith MJ, Smith JD, Fleming MF, et al (2017) Mechanism of action for obtaining job offers with virtual reality job interview training. PS 68:747–750. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201600217

  • Smith SP, Blackmore K, Nesbitt K (2015) A meta-analysis of data collection in serious games research. In: Loh CS, Sheng Y, Ifenthaler D (eds) Serious games analytics: methodologies for performance measurement, assessment, and improvement. Springer, Cham, pp 31–55

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Souchet AD, Philippe S, Ober F, et al (2019) Investigating cyclical stereoscopy effects over visual discomfort and fatigue in virtual reality while learning. In: 2019 IEEE international symposium on mixed and augmented reality (ISMAR). pp 328–338

  • Souchet AD, Philippe S, Zobel D, et al (2018) Eyestrain impacts on learning job interview with a serious game in virtual reality: a randomized double-blinded study. In: Proceedings of the 24th ACM symposium on virtual reality software and technology. ACM, Tokyo Japan, pp 1–12

  • Stanney K, Fidopiastis C, Foster L (2020a) Virtual reality is sexist: but it does not have to be. Front Robot AI. https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2020.00004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanney K, Lawson BD, Rokers B et al (2020b) Identifying causes of and solutions for cybersickness in immersive technology: reformulation of a research and development Agenda. Int J Human Comput Interac 36:1783–1803. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2020.1828535

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stone RJ, Panfilov PB, Shukshunov VE (2011) Evolution of aerospace simulation: from immersive Virtual Reality to serious games. In: Proceedings of 5th international conference on recent advances in space technologies—RAST2011. pp 655–662

  • Storz P, Buess GF, Kunert W, Kirschniak A (2011) 3D HD versus 2D HD: surgical task efficiency in standardised phantom tasks. Surg Endosc 26:1454–1460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00464-011-2055-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Szpak A, Michalski SC, Loetscher T (2020) Exergaming with beat saber: an investigation of virtual reality aftereffects. J Med Internet Res 22:e19840. https://doi.org/10.2196/19840

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Takatalo J, Kawai T, Kaistinen J et al (2011) User experience in 3D Stereoscopic games. Media Psychol 14:387–414. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2011.620538

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terzić K, Hansard ME (2017) Causes of discomfort in stereoscopic content: a review. Comput Res Repos (CoRR)

  • Thai KTP, Jung S, Lindeman RW (2020) On the use of ”Active Breaks” to perform eye exercises for more comfortable VR experiences. In: 2020 IEEE conference on virtual reality and 3D user interfaces abstracts and workshops (VRW). pp 468–476

  • Thalmann D, Lee J, Thalmann NM (2016) An evaluation of spatial presence, social presence, and interactions with various 3D displays. In: Proceedings of the 29th international conference on computer animation and social agents. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, pp 197–204

  • Ujike H, Watanabe H (2015) 3D visual fatigue: interaction between ranges of binocular disparity and interocular crosstalk. In: 2015 IEEE 4th global conference on consumer electronics (GCCE). pp 668–669

  • Ukai K, Howarth PA (2008) Visual fatigue caused by viewing stereoscopic motion images: background, theories, and observations. Displays 29:106–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.displa.2007.09.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Votanopoulos K, Brunicardi FC, Thornby J et al (2007) Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals. World J Surg 32:110–118. https://doi.org/10.1086/459563

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang Y, Rajan P, Sankar C, Raju PK (2017) Let them play: the impact of mechanics and dynamics of a serious game on student perceptions of learning engagement. IEEE Trans Learn Technol. https://doi.org/10.1109/tlt.2016.2639019

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang Y, Zhai G, Chen S et al (2019) Assessment of eye fatigue caused by head-mounted displays using eye-tracking. BioMed Eng OnLine 18:111. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12938-019-0731-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wann JP, Rushton S, Mon-Williams M (1995) Natural problems for stereoscopic depth perception in virtual environments. Vis Res 35:2731–2736. https://doi.org/10.1016/0042-6989(95)00018-u

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webster R (2016) Declarative knowledge acquisition in immersive virtual learning environments. Interact Learn Environ 24:1319–1333. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2014.994533

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilhelm D, Reiser S, Kohn N et al (2014) Comparative evaluation of HD 2D/3D laparoscopic monitors and benchmarking to a theoretically ideal 3D pseudodisplay: even well-experienced laparoscopists perform better with 3D. Surg Endosc 28:2387–2397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00464-014-3487-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wouters P, van Nimwegen C, van Oostendorp H, van der Spek ED (2013) A meta-analysis of the cognitive and motivational effects of serious games. J Educ Psychol 105:249–265. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031311

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wrzesien M, Raya MA (2010) Learning in serious virtual worlds: evaluation of learning effectiveness and appeal to students in the E-Junior project. Comput Educ 55:178–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.01.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yoon HJ, Kim J, Park SW, Heo H (2020) Influence of virtual reality on visual parameters: immersive versus non-immersive mode. BMC Ophthalmol 20:200. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12886-020-01471-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yu X, Weng D, Guo J, et al (2018) Effect of using HMDs for one hour on preteens visual fatigue. In: 2018 IEEE international symposium on mixed and augmented reality adjunct (ISMAR-Adjunct). IEEE, Munich, Germany, pp 93–96

  • Yuan J, Mansouri B, Pettey JH, et al (2018) The visual effects associated with head-mounted displays. Int J Ophthalmol Clin Ress. https://doi.org/10.23937/2378-346x/1410085

  • Zeri F, Livi S (2015) Visual discomfort while watching stereoscopic three-dimensional movies at the cinema. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 35:271–282. https://doi.org/10.1111/opo.12194

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Y, Yang Y, Feng S et al (2020) The evaluation on visual fatigue and comfort between the VR HMD and the iPad. In: Karwowski W, Goonetilleke RS, Xiong S et al (eds) Advances in physical, social and occupational ergonomics. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 213–219

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by Manzalab Group (Paris, France), IDEFI-CréaTIC Programme: Initiatives of Excellence in Innovative Training, and the French National Association of Research and Technology (ANRT) with the Grant CIFRE 2016-1571. Co-author Aurélien Lévêque is now co-founder of the company Virtuallyz. Co-author Floriane Ober is now working at OHM Games. The authors would like to thank Professor Ghislaine Azémard for her overall supervision of the study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Paris 8 University, Saint-Denis, France

    Alexis D. Souchet & Laure Leroy

  2. Manzalab, Paris, France

    Alexis D. Souchet, Stéphanie Philippe, Aurélien Lévêque & Floriane Ober

  3. CNRS—Heudiasyc UMR 7253, Compiègne, France

    Alexis D. Souchet

  4. Neuroscience Department, IRBA, Brétygny-sur-Orge, France

    Alexis D. Souchet & Laure Leroy

Authors
  1. Alexis D. Souchet
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Stéphanie Philippe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Aurélien Lévêque
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Floriane Ober
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Laure Leroy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alexis D. Souchet.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendix

Appendix

See Table

Table 9 Summarizing 14 studies’ results about effects of HMDs on the visual system
Full size table

9

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Souchet, A.D., Philippe, S., Lévêque, A. et al. Short- and long-term learning of job interview with a serious game in virtual reality: influence of eyestrain, stereoscopy, and apparatus. Virtual Reality 26, 583–600 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-021-00548-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-021-00548-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation