An Environmental Impact Assessment Framework for Space Resource Extraction
Introduction
If humanity could start over again, we would likely wish to make wiser choices when it comes to protecting the environment. As we work towards further exploration of celestial bodies, we have the opportunity to apply the knowledge and experience learned from Earth to protecting the extraterrestrial environment. Extraterrestrial bodies, such as asteroids, Mars and the Moon, are an untapped and potentially abundant supply of resources, which may have many uses in space, and, eventually perhaps, on Earth. There are a number of public and private enterprises that have expressed interest in extracting these resources, leading to concerns about a lack of governance and regulation over the extraterrestrial environment [1]. Continued exploration of space, and especially establishing further human presence in space, requires a vast amount of resources. Many of these are already available as natural resources in space, and a number of in-situ resource utilisation (ISRU) schemes have been proposed to extract resources, such as water, for use in space (e.g., Ref. [2]). Motivations for extracting space resources may go beyond human space travel and colonisation, with private organisations evaluating the potential of extracting resources that are becoming increasingly scarce on Earth from space, such as platinum group metals. These resources would then be brought to Earth for use, should it become economically feasible to do so (e.g., Ref. [3]). Although a number of studies have investigated the technical and economic feasibility of extracting resources in space, many of them do not identify and assess the potential extraterrestrial environmental impacts, leading to calls for an environmental protocol for managing these extraterrestrial activities [1,4,5]. Particularly, as the private space sector continues to grow, it is clear that there is no shortage of ambition or excitement surrounding the exploration of outer space. However, as noted by Lin (2006) [6], there is also increasing concern about environmental risks and conservation. Newman [7] notes that a failure to address potential issues in the extraterrestrial environment arising from human activity could have serious implications for space activities in the future. This highlights the importance of extraterrestrial environmental management, ideas for which, have been proposed by several studies (e.g., Refs. [[8], [9], [10]]).
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is an environmental management tool, which is used to assess the potential environmental consequences of a particular project or action. It has been successfully applied on Earth across a range of projects from mining operations through to assessing impact of space launches on Earth's environment [[11], [12], [13]]. The use of EIA spans many decades, and it has been applied in a number of countries across the world, as well as to address transboundary environmental impacts (e.g., Refs. [14,15]). Because of this, we have identified EIA as a tool with potential to support decision-making and environmental management of off-Earth mining (OEM) operations. EIA provides a means to identify and predict the potential extraterrestrial environmental impacts associated with OEM. This allows for mitigation measures to be developed and put in place [16]. In addition, the comparison of alternative courses of action and stakeholder engagement in the decision-making process are important aspects of the EIA process.
The definition of OEM used in this context is that of Shishko et al. [17], which is the extraction of minerals, volatiles (hydrogen, helium, water oxygen) and other indigenous resources from the Moon, Mars, asteroids and comets. OEM can be divided into three broad categories: resource extraction for use in-situ in space (known as in-situ resource utilisation [ISRU]), resource extraction for use in space (but not in-situ), and resource extraction for use on Earth. ISRU is a term collectively used to describe the process of extracting and processing resources from celestial bodies and utilising the products in space. The key aim of extracting resources in space is to produce consumables for human space missions and space settlements, including rocket propellants, life support gases, reactants for energy production and materials to manufacture infrastructure [18]. The extraction of space resources would lead to considerable reductions in the mass that would be required to be launched from Earth for space missions, so if a spacecraft bound for Mars could refuel near the Moon or a near-Earth asteroid, for example, it would result in significant monetary savings compared to travelling directly from Earth. At present, the main focus of ISRU research is the extraction of volatiles from ice, regolith, and in the case of Mars, the atmosphere [2,19,20]. ISRU is currently the primary focus for OEM, as extracting resources in space for return to Earth, is, at present, not financially viable [21]. Although not yet economically viable, there has been considerable discussion about the potential to someday extract resources in space for return to Earth (e.g., Refs. [[22], [23], [24]]). Metals like platinum and palladium that are relatively rare on Earth and abundant in asteroids are likely to be targets for future resource return operations [25].
Section snippets
Motivations for EIA of OEM operations
Impacts of OEM on the extraterrestrial environment may be counterproductive to future resource extraction activities, space exploration, scientific investigation, and preserving historical artifacts and sites of cultural significance in space. There is a variety of reasons why environmental management of OEM activities is important for ensuring that resource extraction in space is carried out sustainably and responsibly.
Proposed framework for EIA of OEM projects
EIA was first established as a mandated procedure in the USA in 1969 by the National Environmental Policy Act, and has since been adopted in some form by almost all other countries [47]. Since their introduction many decades ago, EIA procedures have evolved considerably, and their continued widespread use is a testament to EIA's effectiveness as a planning tool. EIAs are used to predict, assess and reduce the environmental risks associated with a particular project or action, with stakeholder
Extraterrestrial environmental regulation and EIA implementation
The OST was put into effect by the United Nations in 1967 and has, at present, 107 countries as parties [38]. Environmental considerations were not paramount at the time the treaty was created, and it was largely written to prevent space being militarised, promote the peaceful use of outer space, and prevent claims of sovereignty in outer space. Thus, there is little guidance in the OST about resource exploitation and related environmental concerns. Following on from the OST, the Agreement
Challenges of EIA for OEM
EIAs typically focus on environmental impacts in the vicinity of the project site(s). In the case of OEM operations, the focus of EIA studies will be the environment proximal to the resource extraction site. This means that environmental impacts that do not occur in the location may not be considered. For example, an OEM operation is likely to involve the launch of at least one space vehicle from Earth. The impact these launches have on Earth's environment can be considerable [83]. Thus,
Conclusion and recommendations
While currently in its infancy, resource extraction in space is likely to become increasingly important moving forward. Thus, now is the ideal time to start putting provisions in place to protect the extraterrestrial environment and promote environmentally sustainable extraction of space resources. We propose the use of EIAs for OEM operations, as one aspect of the necessary environmental management of activities in space. The approach involves a three-phase EIA process, with stakeholder
CRediT authorship contribution statement
J.A. Dallas: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft. S. Raval: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing, Supervision. S. Saydam: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing, Supervision. A.G. Dempster: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing, Supervision.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to two anonymous reviewers for their constructive and helpful feedback. Financial support for this research was provided by the Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship.
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