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Ignition of Gases, Vapors, and Liquids by Hot Surfaces

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Abstract

Gases, vapors, liquid sprays, aerosols and other forms of ignitable fluids dispersed into the atmosphere, under certain circumstances, may encounter a hot surface. When investigating a fire, it may be necessary to determine in such cases if the hot surface was a competent ignition source. The paper reviews the available experimental data and findings on this topic and gives appropriate advice. It is shown that, unlike the autoignition temperature (AIT), which is only slightly dependent on test conditions, the hot-surface ignition temperature (HSIT) is highly dependent on the test environment conditions. The primary variable affecting the outcome is the degree of ‘enclosedness.’ If the degree of enclosedness is not extreme, a standard recommendation is that the hot-surface ignition temperature might be assumed to be 200°C higher than the AIT. But for conditions of significant enclosedness, the actual ignition temperature is more influenced by the fuel’s volatility (which is related to its flash point) than its AIT value. Higher volatility fuels are harder, not easier, to ignite from a hot surface. Since gasoline is the most volatile of the common automotive-use ignitable liquids, it turns out to be the one which is the hardest to ignite by a hot surface. Nonetheless, in some cases, vehicular engine compartment temperatures can become high enough for gasoline to get ignited. When conducting HSIT tests, it is important to be cognizant of the probabilistic nature of the ignition problem.

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Notes

  1. ‘Induction period’ is the term used in chemical literature to denote ignition time.

  2. The equivalence ratio, φ, is defined as (fuel/air ratio)actual/(fuel/air ratio)stoichiometric. Consequently, the mixture is lean for φ < 1, and it is rich for φ > 1.

  3. Note that, in some cases, a discharged droplet will not reach the hot surface, since it will fully vaporize enroute. Whether this happens will depend on the size of the droplet, the discharge height, and the temperature and velocity details of the plume.

  4. Some authors use the term MHSIT, denoting ‘minimum hot surface ignition temperature.’ This is not correct usage, since the minimum HSIT is the AIT, and a distinction should be maintained between HSIT and AIT.

  5. For most fuels, the cumulative probability distribution is a monotonically increasing function of the temperature. But for fuels, under some conditions, anomalies have been found experimentally, and unusual probability distribution functions may be encountered.

  6. In case of environments which involve a uniform fuel/air mixture, the velocity is to be understood to be the velocity of this mixture.

  7. Note that the values obtained by Severy et al. were without an imposed wind velocity.

  8. Note that the Federal standard uses a 5-sided box, while the ISO standard a 4-sided one.

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  1. John Jay College of Criminal Justice, New York, NY, USA

    Vytenis Babrauskas

  2. Fire Science and Technology Inc, New York, NY, USA

    Vytenis Babrauskas

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Babrauskas, V. Ignition of Gases, Vapors, and Liquids by Hot Surfaces. Fire Technol 58, 281–310 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-021-01144-8

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