Abstract
This study discusses how textbook educational approaches concerning Le Châtelier’s principle (LCP) may hinder student comprehension and prediction of chemical equilibrium disturbances. Firstly, after summarising students’ LCP erroneous assertions/explanations, a categorisation of the potential barriers that may originate student misunderstandings is performed. The discussed obstacles are the following: (a) language difficulties; (b) limited range of applicability; (c) official examinations and chemistry syllabi and (d) educational research. Then, it is examined how general chemistry textbooks’ authors deal with the evolution of chemical equilibria when they are disturbed. The different qualitative formulations of LCP provided in textbooks use mainly polysemic teleological vocabulary, which are difficult to understand in this context. Moreover, textbooks’ writers normally do not specify the conditions under which an equilibrium system is disturbed. In this textbook presentation, LCP is introduced as an easy and infallible rule, without limitations. Thus, several problematic perturbations reported in the chemical education research literature are not considered in these materials. Hence, this study concludes that their lacks and misleading use and application of LCP may certainly affect proper student understanding of the concepts related to chemical equilibrium disturbances.
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Appendices
Appendix 1. Textbook sample
1.1 Grade-12 Spanish Chemistry textbooks
Carriedo, G. A., Fernández, J. M. and García, M. J. (2016), Química. Madrid: Paraninfo.
del Barrio, J. I., Sánchez, A., Bárcena, A. I. and Caamaño, A. (2016), Química, Madrid: SM.
Dou, J., Masjuan, M. D. and Costafreda, E. M. (2016), Química, Barcelona: Casals.
Fontanet, A. (2016), Química, Barcelona: VicensVives.
Grence, T. Guardia, C. and Menéndez, A. I. (2016), Química, Tres Cantos: Santillana.
Illana, J., Araque, J. A., Liébana, A. and Teijón, J. M (2016), Química, Madrid: Anaya.
Manuel, M. M. and Fajardo, J. C. (2016), Química, Zaragoza: Edelvives.
Pozas, A., Martín, R., Rodríguez, A. Ruiz, A. and Vasco, A. J. (2016), Química, Madrid: McGrawHill.
Sauret, M. (2016), Química, Madrid: Bruño.
Simón, B., García-Serra, J. and Romero, J. J. (2016), Química, Barcelona: Edebé.
Vidal, M. C. and Peña, J. (2016). Química. San Fernando de Henares: Oxford.
1.2 IB and A level Chemistry textbooks
Brown, C. and Ford, M. (2014), Higher Level Chemistry, Harlow: Pearson.
Bylikin, S., Horner, G., Murphy, B. and Tarcy, D. (2014), Chemistry for the IB Diploma, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Owen, S. (2014), Chemistry for the IB Diploma, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ritchie, R. and Gent, D. (2015), A level Chemistry for OCR, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ryan, L. (2015), Advanced Chemistry for You, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ryan, L. and Norris, R. (2014), A Level Chemistry, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Talbot, C., Harwood, R. and Coates, C. (2015), Chemistry for the IB Diploma, London: Horder Education.
1.3 First-year Chemistry textbooks
Brown, T. L., LeMay, H. E., Bursten, B. E., Murphy, C. J. and Woodward, P. M. (2012), Chemistry. The central science, Boston: Prentice Hall.
Chang, R. and Goldsby, H.A. (2016), Chemistry, New York: McGrawHill.
Gilbert, T., Kirss, R. V., Foster, N., Bretz, S. L. and Davies, G. (2018), Chemistry. The Science in Context, New York: Norton.
Jespersen, N. D., Brady, J. E. and Hyslop, A. (2012), Chemistry. The Molecular Nature of Matter, Hoboken: Wiley.
Kotz, J. C., Treichel, P. M., Townsend, J. R. and Treichel, D. A. (2015), Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity, Stamford: Cengage Learning.
Moore, J. W., Stanitski, C. L. and Jurs, P. C. (2011), Chemistry. The molecular science, Belmont: Brooks/Cole.
Petrucci, R. H., Herring, F. G., Madura, J. D. and Bissonnette, C. (2017), General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications, Pearson: Toronto.
Zumdahl, S. S. and DeCoste, D. J. (2017), Chemical Principles, Boston: Cengage Learning.
Appendix 2. Le Châtelier’s principle: textbook statements (italics added by the author of this study; also, translations from Spanish textbooks were made by this author. It was checked using back translation and eventually an official translator that had served in the Spanish administration for more than 30 years verified the initial translation made)
1.1 Spanish Grade-12 chemistry textbooks
If a chemical system in equilibrium is subjected to a change, the reaction of the equilibrium responds shifting in the sense that cancels or minimise that change till reaching a new equilibrium state (Carriedo et al., 2016).
If in a system in equilibrium it is modified any of the factors that influence it, the system evolves in the sense that tends to counteract that change (del Barrio et al., 2016).
When in a system in equilibrium a change of any of the variables determining it (concentration, pressure or temperature) occurs, the equilibrium shifts in the direction that tends to oppose to that change (Dou et al., 2016)
When a system in a state of equilibrium is subjected to a disturbance in the conditions in which it is, the system will shift towards a new state of equilibrium so that the readjustment partially counteracts the effect of the disturbance. (Fontanet, 2016)
When a system in equilibrium is subjected to a change in the concentration of the participant species, pressure or temperature, the system responds reaching a new equilibrium that partially counteracts the effect of the change produced (Grence et al., 2016).
If in a system in equilibrium is introduced an external disturbance that alters the equilibrium, this system will evolve in the sense that tends to counteract the disturbance produced. (Illana et al., 2016)
Any change in one of the factors of an equilibrium (concentration of substances, pressure and temperature) determines a rearrangement of the system so as to reduce the disturbance introduced (Manuel and Fajardo, 2016)
If in a system in equilibrium it is modified the value of any of the values affecting it (temperature, volume, pressure or concentration), the system evolves in a way that shifts in the sense that tends to counteract such a variation (Pozas et al., 2016).
When a variation of any factor affects a system in equilibrium, this equilibrium shifts in the sense that counteracts that variation (Sauret, 2016)
When a system in equilibrium experiments a transformation, this system evolves to reach a new equilibrium in the sense which opposes to the transformation suffered (Vidal and Peña)
If in a system in equilibrium an external factor (temperature, pressure or concentration) is altered, the system evolves to counteract that change and to establish a new equilibrium state (Simón et al., 2016).
1.2 IB Chemistry textbooks
A system at equilibrium when subjected to a change will respond in such a way as to minimize the effect of the change (Brown and Ford, 2014).
If a change is made to a system that is in equilibrium, the balance between the forward and the reverse reactions will shift to offset this change and return the system to equilibrium (Bylikin et al., 2014)
If a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change, the position of equilibrium will shift in order to minimise the effect of the change (Owen, 2014).
The system responds to negate the change by responding in the opposite way (Talbot et al., 2015).
1.3 British A level chemistry textbooks
When a system in equilibrium is subjected to an external change the system readjust itself to minimise the effect of the change (Ritchie and Gent, 2015).
The position of equilibrium shifts to try to cancel out any changes you introduce (Ryan, 2015)
If one or more factors that affect an equilibrium is changed, the position of equilibrium shifts in the direction that reduces (opposes) the change (Ryan and Norris, 2014)
1.4 First-year university chemistry textbooks
If a system at equilibrium is disturbed by a change in temperature, pressure, or a component concentration, the system will shift its equilibrium position so as to counteract the effect of the disturbance (Brown et al., 2012).
If an external stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system adjusts in such a way that the stress is partially offset as it tries to re-establish equilibrium (Chang and Goldsby, 2016).
If a system at equilibrium is perturbed (or subjected to an external stress), the position of the equilibrium shifts in either the forward or reverse direction as a response to reduce that stress (Gilbert et al., 2018).
If an outside influence upsets an equilibrium, the system undergoes a change in a direction that counteracts the disturbing influence and, if possible, returns the system to equilibrium (Jerpersen et al., 2012)
A change in any of the factors that determine the equilibrium conditions of a system will cause the system to change in such a manner as to reduce or counteract the effect of the change (Kotz et al., 2015).
If a system is at equilibrium and the conditions are changed so that it is no longer at equilibrium, the system will react to reach a new equilibrium in a way that partially counteracts the change (Moore et al., 2011).
When an equilibrium system is subjected to a change in temperature, pressure, or concentration of a reacting species, the system responds by attaining a new equilibrium that partially offsets the impact of the change (Petrucci et al., 2017).
If a change in conditions (a ”stress”) is imposed on a system at equilibrium, the equilibrium position will shift in a direction that tends to reduce that change in conditions (Zumdahl and DeCoste, 2017).
1.5 Classical Textbooks
If a constraint is applied to a system in equilibrium, the change which occurs is such that it tends to annul the constraint (Butler, 1939)
If a change occurs in one of the factors, such as temperature or pressure, under which a system is in equilibrium, the system will tend to adjust itself so as to annul, as far as possible, the effect of that change (Glasstone, 1946)
Any change in one of the variables that determine the state of a system in equilibrium causes a shift in the position of equilibrium in a direction that tends to counteract the change in the variable under consideration (Moore, 1963)
Every change of one of the factors of an equilibrium occasions a rearrangement of the system in such a direction that the factor in question experiences a change in a sense opposite to the original change (Nernst, 1904)
If a system in equilibrium is subjected to a constraint, whereby the equilibrium is modified, a change takes place, if possible, which partially annuls the constraint (Partington, 1949)
When one or more of the factors determining an equilibrium are altered, the equilibrium becomes displaced in such a way as to neutralize, as far as possible, the effect of the change (Senter, 1919)
If the conditions of a system, initially at equilibrium, are changed, the equilibrium will shift in such a direction as to tend to restore the original conditions (Pauling, 1957).
1.6 Other chemistry textbooks
A change in a variable that determines the state of an equilibrium system will cause a shift in the position of the equilibrium in a direction tending to counteract the effect of the change in the variable (Adamson, 1973)
If a system in equilibrium is subjected to an external effect, the balance will be upset in that direction of the process which will tend to weaken this effect (Akhmetov, 1983).
When a system at equilibrium is subjected to a disturbance, the composition of the system adjusts so as to tend to minimize the effect of the disturbance (Atkins & de Paula, 2009)
When a system is in chemical equilibrium, a change in one of the parameters of the equilibrium produces a shift in such a direction that, were no other factors involved in this shift, it would lead to a change of opposite sign in the parameter considered (Chang & Thoman, 2014)
Any system in chemical equilibrium undergoes, as a result of a variation in one of the factors governing equilibrium, a compensating change in a direction such that, had this change occurred alone it would have produced a variation of the factor considered in the opposite direction (Considine, 2005).
Every equilibrium system reacts to external actions, modifying itself in the sense of absorbing the effects produced in order to restore primitive conditions (Corrales, 1974).
A system forced out of equilibrium readjusts in a manner that tends to undo the change it has just suffered (Le Châtelier’s principle might be called an observation of the natural perversity of a disturbed system) (Harrison & Weaver, 1989)
When a stress is brought to bear on a system at equilibrium, the system tends to change so as to relieve the stress (Keenan & Wood, 1966).
If an external stress is applied to a system in equilibrium, the equilibrium will shift continuously in the direction indicated by the stress until the growing reaction in the system become equal to the external stress (Nekrasov, 1969).
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Quílez, J. Le Châtelier’s Principle a Language, Methodological and Ontological Obstacle: An Analysis of General Chemistry Textbooks. Sci & Educ 30, 1253–1288 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-021-00214-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-021-00214-1