Abstract
The article analyzes the position of individual and average data points of the Archean and Early Proterozoic metaaleuropelites (Isua and Akilia associations, West Greenland; Beit Bridge Complex, Limpopo Province, South Africa; Moodies, Mozaan, and Pretoria groups, Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa; Kola Group, Baltic Shield, Russia; Nurmes paragneisses, Eastern Finland; Onot greenstone belt, southeastern Sayan region, Russia; Rampur Group, Lesser Himalayas, India; Kan metamorphic complex, eastern Sayan region, Russia; Ladoga Group, northern Ladoga region, Russia; Yenisei metamorphic complex, Russia; and others) in the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* and (La/Yb)N–Th diagrams with classification fields constructed from data on the content of REE and Th in the fine grained clastic/aleuropelitic sediments near the estuary of different-category modern rivers, according to (Bayon et al., 2015). It has been shown that the vast majority of data points of metaaleuropelites are localized in fields 1 (particulates of major rivers in the world), 2 (particulates of rivers draining sedimentary substrates) and 4 (particulates of rivers flowing through volcanic rock terrains), as well as the zone overlapping fields 1–3 (particulates of rivers feeding on erosion products of the magmatic/metamorphic terrains). Data points of all examined objects with an age of more than 2.8 Ga in the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* diagram are concentrated mainly in field 4. If all our assumptions are correct, these observations suggest the following conclusion: until the above-indicated time, large rivers and, most likely, rivers draining mainly sedimentary rocks did not exist, and processes of the recycling of fine-grained aluminosiliciclastics were reduced.
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INTRODUCTION
Data presented in (Bayon et al., 2015) on the Th–REE systematics of the pelitic and silty–pelitic sediments at estuaries of modern rivers draining different (in terms of water catchment area and rock composition) basins suggest the following conclusions (Maslov et al., 2017; Maslov and Shevchenko, 2019): in (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu*, (La/Yb)N–(Eu/Sm)N, and (La/Yb)N–Th diagrams, data points of the fine-grained suspended particulate matter (hereafter, particulates) of different-categoryFootnote 1 rivers make up both overlapping, and separate fields (Figs. 1, 2). For example, fields of the compositional data points of bottom sediments in large rivers and rivers draining sedimentary rocks are characterized by approximately 60–80% overlap. Fields of bottom sediments at estuaries of large rivers, rivers with watersheds composed mainly of sedimentary rocks, and rivers draining “magmatic/metamorphic” terrains are also overlapped (from ~30 to 50%). The overlap, however, is absent for fields of bottom sediments in rivers feeding on erosion products from water catchment areas composed of magmatic/metamorphic rocks and in rivers washing out volcanic rocks.
Positions of data points of bottom sediments, according to (Bayon et al., 2015), at estuaries of different-category modern rivers in the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* diagram. (1) Category 1 (“large”or major) rivers in the world) (numbers near signs in diagrams): (1) Amazon, (2) Congo, (3) Mississippi, (4) Nile, (5) Niger, (6) Yangtze, (7) MacKenzie, (8) Volga, (9) Murray, (10) Orinoco, (11) Danube, (12) Mekong, (13) Yellow River, (14) Amu Darya, (15) Don, (16) Severnaya Dvina, (17) Fraser, (18) Rhine, (19) Visla, (20) Red River, (21) Chao Phraya (Thailand), (22) Luara; (2) category 2 rivers draining the “mixed/sedimentary” rocks—(23) Seine, (24) Fly (New Guinea), (25) Guadiana (Spain and Portugal), (26) Chubut (southern Argentina), (27) Meklong (western Thailand), (28) Shannon (Ireland), (29) Adour (France), (30) Sefid Rud (northern Iran), (31) Maine (western France), (32) Var (southeastern France), (33) Blackwater (Ireland), (34) Moyola (Ireland); (3) category 3 rivers feeding on erosion products from “magmatic/metamorphic” terrains (rivers draining “igneous/metamorphic” terrains)—(35) Caroni (Venezuela), (36) Narva, (37) Caura (Venezuela), (38) Kemijoki (Finland), (39) Aro (Venezuela), (40) Ume (northern Sweden), (41) Lule (Norway), (42) Tana (Norway), (43) Kemijoki (Finland), (44) Foyle (Ireland), (45) Elorn (France), (46) Suilly (Ireland); (4) category 4 rivers draining provinces composed of mainly volcanic rocks (rivers draining “volcanic” rocks)—(47) Kamchatka, (48) Waikato (New Zealand), (49) Lower Bann (northern Ireland), (50) Main (Ireland), (51) Six Mile (Ireland), (52) Glenariff (Ireland), (53) Galets (Reunion Peninsula).
Position of data points of bottom sediments, according to (Bayon et al., 2015), at estuaries of modern different-category rivers in the (La/Yb)N–Th diagram. For data point numbers and legend, see Fig. 1.
In previous papers, we used the above-listed diagrams for reconstructing the water catchment spaces of different categories delivering the fine-grained clastic and clayey material to sedimentary successions of the Upper Precambrian Bashkirian and Kvarkush–Kamennogorsk anticlinoriums (western Urals), Kama–Bel’sk aulacogen, and Uchur–Maya region; Upper Paleozoic sedimentary sequences in the Yuryuzan–Sylva depression (Cis-Ural foredeep); Lower Mesozoic rocks in the western part of Western Siberia; and some other objects. In the present paper, we attempted to apply these diagrams for analyzing pre-Riphean metaterrigenous rocks subjected to different degrees of metamorphism.
MATERIALS
General characteristics of objects
From literature sources published in the recent 30–35 years (Fig. 3), we adopted the data on contents of La, Sm, Eu, Gd, YbFootnote 2, and Th in metasedimentary rocks (mainly metaaleuropelites with SiO2 <65–66 wt %) of different geological objects, with the age varying from ~3.8 to 1.6 Ga (total 245 analysesFootnote 3). These objects are represented by alluvial successions, coastal- and shallow-marine metaterrigenous rocks, and turbidites in some places.
Schematic position of objects discussed in the present paper, with the geographic setting modified after (Verma and Armstrong-Altrin, 2013). (1) Isua and Akilia associations, West Greenland; (2) Beit Bridge Complex, Limpopo Province, South Africa; (3) Moodies Group, Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa; (4) George Creek Group, Pilbara Block/Craton, Western Australia; (5) Mozaan Group, Pongola Supergroup, Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa; (6) Witwatersrand Supergroup, Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa; (7) Kola Group, Baltic Shield; (8) Karelian Province, Baltic Shield; (9) Narmes paragneiss, eastern Finland; (10) Kambalda area, Yilgarn Block/Craton, Western Australia; (11) Onot greenstone belt, Sharyzhalgai Uplift, southeastern Sayan region; (12) Yellowknife Supergroup, Slave Province, Canada; (13) Rampur Group, Lesser Himalayas, India; (14) Pretoria Group, Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa; (15) Hurwitz Group, Saskatchewan, southern Canada; (16) Kan metamorphic complex, Kan Block, eastern Sayan; (17) Wa-Lawra Belt, Ghana; (18) Kongling terrain, northwestern Yangtze Craton, southern China; (19) Ladoga Group, northern Ladoga region; (20) amphibolite–marble–paragneiss sequence of the Yenisei metamorphic complex, Angara–Kan Block, Yenisei Ridge; (21) paragneiss sequence of the same complex; (22) Fowler domain, western Gawler Craton, South Australia.
Based on the assumption that the rocks did not undergo significant transformation of the initial REE and Th distribution and using the available literature data, we calculated the chondrite-normalized (Taylor and McLennan, 1985) values of (La/Yb)N and Eu/Eu* (Table 1). Fields of data points characterizing the individual samples, as well as data points of the averaged composition calculated for the majority of studied objects, in (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* and (La/Yb)N–Th diagrams were compared with the fields of modern aleuropelitic sediments in rivers of four categories. However, it is important that despite a large volume of available literature data, we could not find information about the composition of metaaleuropelites (e.g., the content of some REE), pattern of metamorphism, sources of the fine-grained aluminosiliciclastics, and timing of protoliths for some objects.
The Isua greenstone belt (Western Greenland) accommodates, in addition to amphibolites, banded ferruginous quartzites (i.e., BIF), dunites, and pyroxene–olivine rocks, metasedimentary rocks of the amphibolite facies (garnet–biotite–plagioclase crystalline schists/metapelites), with the age estimated at ~3.80–3.75 Ga (Long, 2019; McLennan and Taylor, 1984). Based on calculations, the formation of initial sediments was related to the mixing of disintegration products of both mafic and felsic igneous rocks (Bolhar et al., 2005). Similar age is typical for enclaves of the “Akilia association,” as well as xenoliths and boudins of mafic, ultramafic, and sedimentary (clastic and chemogenic) rocks in the Amitsoq gneisses (Bolhar et al., 2004; McGregor and Mason, 1977).
The Beit Bridge Complex (Limpopo Province, South Africa) is mainly composed of metasedimentary (biotite–garnet–cordierite–sillimanite gneisses) and metavolcanic (amphibolites) rocks (ago ~3.6 to 3.2 GaFootnote 4). Marbles and talc-containing rocks are subordinate (Taylor et al., 1986). These rocks were metamorphosed to the granulite facies. According to (Eriksson and Kidd, 1985), protoliths of metasedimentary rocks were represented by mudstones, quartz arenites, arkoses, as well as limestones and calcareous mudstones (proportions 50 : 17 : 17 : 17), suggesting their formation on shallow-water shelves of cratons that were widespread later in the Proterozoic and Phanerozoic. The REE systematics in pelites suggests that sources of the fine-grained aluminosiliciclastics for them were represented by both mafic and felsic igneous rocks (K-granites included).
Based on modern estimates, metasedimentary rocks of the Moodies Group (Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa) are estimated at ~3.2 Ga (Hessler and Lowe, 2006; Long, 2019). The formation of their protoliths was related to the erosion of tonalites, trondhjemites, quartz monzonites, and felsic volcanic rocks, i.e., rocks of the first sedimentation cycle (McLennan and Taylor, 1983). High contents of Ni and Cr in shales suggest the presence of a significant amount of washout products of ultramafic rocks (Hessler and Lowe, 2006). It is noteworthy that the shales are subordinate in sections of the Moodies Group; e.g., in the Moodies Hills Block and the Saddleback syncline, mudstones and shales account for less than 5% of the ~3000-m-thick section. The clayey sediments were likely deposited in the alluvial, intertidal, and coastal-marine settings (Eriksson, 1978, 1979; Long, 2019 and references therein).
The George Creek Group (Pilbara Craton, Western Australia) is composed of the predominant metaterrigenous rocks (muscovite–quartz schists) along with the subordinate ferruginous quartzites and basalts (Van Kranendonk, 2006). Previously their age was estimated at ~3.4 to 3.3 Ga (Groves et al., 1994; McLennan et al., 1983), but now at 3.066–3.015 Ga (Long, 2019 and references therein). According to (Eriksson, 1981, 1982), these metaterrigenous rocks formed in the alluvial and trough (turbidites) settings. The shallow-water facies is likely absent here. The clastic material was sourced from both mafic and felsic igneous rocks.
Metaterrigenous rocks of the Mozaan Group (metaconglomerates, metasandstones, metapelites with metacarbonate rock layers, and metabasalts) of the Pongola Supergroup (Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa) are estimated at ~2.9 Ga (Long, 2019 and references therein; McLennan and Taylor, 1983). Their protoliths were deposited, probably, in the fluvial and tidal settings, whereas the aluminosiliciclastics was sourced from rocks of the granite–greenstone association (Hicks and Hofmann, 2012; Watchorn, 1980).
The Witwatersrand Supergroup (~2.97 to 2.78 Ga, Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa) combines the Western Rand and Central Rand groups (Jahn and Condie, 1995; Long, 2019). The Western Rand Group comprises the predominant metapelites and quartzites along with the subordinate mafic volcanic rocks. The rocks were deposited likely in the shallow-marine or intertidal settings with a subordinate role of the alluvial setting (Tankard et al., 1982). The Central Rand Group includes metasubgraywackes, quartzites, and metaconglomerates. Both metapelites and mafic volcanic rocks are subordinate here. They were deposited mainly in a multichannel alluvial system, but basalts and komatiites played a significant role in the provenances (Jahn and Condie, 1995).
The Kola Group (~2.8 Ga, Baltic Shield) includes the high-aluminous (garnet–biotite, biotite–sillimanite, and others) gneisses assigned to metasedimentary rocks by some researchers (Rannii dokembrii …, 2005; Sirotin et al., 2005; Vetrin et al., 2013; and others) or to another type by other researchers (Myskova and Mil’kevich, 2016; and others). Protoliths of these gneisses were represented likely by the polymictic and arkosic sandstones, graywackes, as well as weathering products of mafic and felsic rocks (Sirotin et al., 2005).
Upper Archean (~2.75 Ga) sections of the Karelian Province (Central and West Karelian domains in the Baltic Shield) includes metaterrigenous rocks (mainly metagraywackes), in addition to intermediate and felsic volcanic rocks (Chekulaev and Arestova, 2020). Aluminosiliciclastics in them were sourced from rocks of the tonalite–trondhjemite–granite (TTG) association, with a subordinate role of mafic and ultramafic rocks.
The Karelian Craton in eastern Finland is represented by the greenstone and metasedimentary belts located between the gneiss–granite complexes composed of ortho- and paragneisses, as well as tonalite–granodiorite–granite plutons (Sorjonen-Ward and Luukkonen, 2005). The Narmes paragneiss discussed below is a member of the eponymous belt sandwitched between the Kuhmo and Ilomantsi granite–greenstone terrains located north of the City of Narmes (Kontinen et al., 2007). They are composed mainly of biotite–plagioclase rocks matching the average composition of Neoarchean graywackes. The age of protoliths is estimated at 2.75 to 2.70 Ga. The clastic material in them was sourced mainly from rocks of the TTG association and/or sanukitoids and mafic volcanic rocks. The Narmes metagraywackes were likely deposited in the back-arc or interarc settings (Kontinen et al., 2007).
The Kambalda area (Yilgarn Block/Craton, Western Australia) comprises Late Archean (~2.7 Ga) granite–greenstone associations including the mafic–ultramafic and felsic volcanic rocks, as well as metasedimentary rocks, gneisses, and granite gneisses (Batemann et al., 2001; Bavinton and Taylor, 1980). They are metamorphosed to the epidote–amphibolite facies. Metasedimentary rocks include cherts and their carbonaceous varieties, carbonaceous shales and metaturbidites, as well as felsic volcaniclastic rocks. According to (Squire et al., 1998), the clastic material in these areas was sourced not only from felsic volcanic rocks and granites (distal source), but also from mafic and ultramafic rocks (proximal source). These rocks were likely deposited in the low-energy deep or shallow-water settings.
Metavolcanosedimentary sequences (presumably, ~2.7 Ga) in the Onot greenstone belt (Sharyzhalgai Uplift, southeastern Sayan region) comprise the following rock varieties: amphibolites; amphibole, amphibole–biotite, garnet–biotite, garnet–staurolite–amphibole, and garnet–staurolite–biotite schists (metasiltstones and metamudstones); muscovite–chlorite–quartz and biotite–amphibole–plagioclase schists (metagraywackes); marbles; ferruginous quartzites; and metarhyolites. The rocks are metamorphosed to the epidote–amphibolite facies. The clastic material for metaterrigenous rocks was sourced both from tonalite–trondhjemite plagiogneisses and from the overlapping mafic and felsic volcanic rocks (Nozhkin et al., 2001b; Turkina et al., 2014).
The Yellowknife Supergroup (Slave Province, Canada) estimated approximately at 2.72–2.661 Ga (Long, 2019 and references therein) includes the thick supracrustal rocks complex dominated by metasedimentary rocks. One of their best examples is represented by turbidites of the Burwash Formation (Ferguson et al., 2005) that are metamorphosed mainly to the greenschist and amphibolite facies. According to (Jenner et al., 1981), the clastic material was sourced from a feeding province (hereafter, provenance) composed of mafic and intermediate volcanic rocks (~20%), their felsic varieties (~55%), and granitoids (25%). Later works (Yamashita and Creaser, 1999) suggested that the paleocatchment area is composed of mafic and intermediate volcanic rocks (~35%), felsic volcanic rocks (~45%), granitoids (18%), and ultramafic rocks (2%).
The Late Archean Rampur Group (~2.51 Ga, Lesser Himalayas, India) includes metapelites, metasandstones, and mafic volcanic rocks. The alteration grade of these rocks corresponds to metagenesis (anchizone). According to (Bhat and Ghosh, 2001), the clastic material in this sequence was sourced mainly from felsic igneous rocks, and mafic rocks were subordinate. Protoliths of metaterrigenous rocks of the Rampur Group were likely deposited in the shallow-marine setting.
The Pretoria Group (~2.30 to 2.10 Ga, Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa) includes the Timeball Hill, Strubenkop, and Silverton formations (Jahn and Condie, 1995; Long, 2019) composed of quartzites and metapelites deposited under the shallow-marine and intertidal settings. Carbonate and volcanic rocks are subordinate in these sections.
The Hurwitz Group (~2.4 to 1.9 Ga, Saskatchewan Province, southern Canada) includes metasedimentary rocks (metapelites, their ferruginous varieties, and marbles) along with diverse (hereafter, mixed) intrusive rocks. According to (Harper, 2004), the rocks are metamorphosed mainly to the amphibolite (granulite, in some places) facies.
The Paleoproterozoic (~2.45 to 2.3 Ga, according to (Nozhkin, 2009) Kan metamorphic complex in the Kan Block (eastern Sayan) includes the amphibole, biotite–amphibole, garnet–biotite, and biotite gneisses, metavolcanic rocks, marbles, plagioclase amphibolites, and metaultramafic rocks (Dmitrieva et al., 2008; Nozhkin and Turkina, 1993; Nozhkin et al., 1996). The rocks are metamorphosed to the amphibolite facies (Nozhkin et al., 2001a). According to (Dmitrieva et al., 2008), protoliths of the metaterrigenous rock complex were sourced from “island-arc graywackes”, i.e., rocks of the first sedimentation cycle (presumably, 2.30 to 1.87 Ga). The clastic material was sourced from island-arc rock associations, as well as mafic igneous and more mature crustal rocks (Archean Siberian Craton or Early Proterozoic Central terrain of the Kan Block).
The Paleoproterozoic Wa-Lawra Belt (~2.1 Ga, northern Ghana) includes metasedimentary rocks (metapelites, metasandstones, and others) metamorphosed to the greenschist facies. The geochemical characteristics of pelites suggest that they are represented mainly by material of the first sedimentation cycle sourced from both mafic and felsic igneous rocks. Calculations based on the REE systematics of pelites revealed the following approximate proportions in the water catchment area: basalts 50%, TTG association rocks 16%, and granites 35%. Initial sediments were deposited under the intracontinental setting of a back-arc basin (Asiedu et al., 2019 and references therein).
The Kongling terrain (northwestern Yangtze Craton, southern China) is composed of diorites, tonalites, granite gneisses, metasedimentary rocks (garnet–sillimanite gneisses), as well as amphibolites and mafic granulites. Rocks in this terrain are metamorphosed to the upper amphibolite and granulite facies. Maximum age of the metasedimentary rock deposition is estimated at ~2.1 Ga (Yin et al., 2013). Significant variations in the mineralogical and isotope-geochemical characteristics of gneisses suggest a mixed rock composition in the provenance. According to (Gao et al., 1999), the clastic material could be sourced from the material of the first sedimentation cycle—diorite–tonalite–trondhjemite gneisses (up to 62%) and amphibolites (up to 25%)—along with komatiites (2–10%) and granites (up to 7%). According to (Qiu et al., 2018), the clastic material was sourced from intensely weathered mafic igneous rocks with the subordinate felsic volcanic rocks. It is assumed that protoliths of metasedimentary rocks in the Kongling Complex were deposited under the continental volcanic arc setting.
The Ladoga Group (presumably ~2.00–1.92 Ga, northern Ladoga region) includes the biotite gneisses and quartz–mica schists (Kotova et al., 2007, 2009, 2013). Their protoliths were represented mainly by graywacke sandstones and mudstones. The clastic material for metaterrigenous rocks of this group was sourced from granite gneisses in the Archean Karelian megablock (Baltic Shield) and Early Proterozoic (Jatulian) deposits, including the mafic igneous rocks. According to estimates presented in (Myskova et al., 2012), these deposits included the Karelian (~30–40%) and Jatulian (~60–70%) rocks. Supracrustal rocks of the Ladoga region underwent regional metamorphism ranging from the greenschist facies in northeast to the granulite facies in southwest.
The Late Paleoproterozoic Yenisei metamorphic complex (Angara–Kan Block, Yenisei Ridge) includes four sequences: amphibolite–marble–paragneiss (volcanogenic–carbonate–terrigenous, sedimentation time 1.85 to 1.84 Ga ago); amphibolite–orthogneiss (volcanogenic, ~1.74 Ga ago); marble–paragneiss (carbonate–terrigenous); and paragneiss (terrigenous) (Nozhkin et al., 2019). Protoliths for the gneisses and shales in the first and fourth sequences were represented, probably, by the polymictic or arkosic sandstones, siltstones, and mudstones of the first sedimentation cycle. The garnet–two-mica schists are considered metamudstones.
The Fowler domain located in the western Gawler Craton (South Australia) comprises mainly metasedimentary rocks (biotite–muscovite–garnet–quartz–sillimanite–cordierite metapelites) formed between 1.76–1.71 and 1.69–1.67 Ga ago (Howard et al., 2011). Aluminosiliciclastics in these sequences were likely sourced from the geochemically mature rocks of the North Australian Craton.
Geochemical Characteristics of Objects
The minimum Th content (down to 2.41 ppm, on average) is recorded in Early Archean metapelites of Western Greenland; the maximum content (up to 29.93 ppm, on average), in metasedimentary rocks of the Fowler domain (Gawler Craton). The lowest La contents were recorded in metaterrigenous rocks of the Kambalda area (average 11.21 ppm, Table 1); the highest contents, in metaterrigenous rocks of the Gawler Craton (up to 58.43 ppm on average) Minimum contents of Sm, Eu, and Gd were found in metaterrigenous rocks of the Kambalda area (2.52, 0.87, and 2.64 ppm, respectively, on average). Maximum Sm and Eu contents were recorded in rocks of the Gawler Craton (10.07 and 1.76 ppm, respectively); maximum Gd content, in metapelites of the Pretoria Group (average 6.86 ppm). The lowest Yb content (1.46 ppm) was recorded in high-aluminous gneisses of the Kola Group; the maximum value, in gneisses of the in Beit Bridge Complex, Limpopo belt (Table 1). Average (La/Yb)N value in metaterrigenous rocks from the studied sample group varies from 4.49 (Kambalda area) to 26.13 (Fowler domain, Gawler Craton). Values of \({{{\text{Eu}}} \mathord{\left/ {\vphantom {{{\text{Eu}}} {{\text{Eu}}_{{{\text{aver}}}}^{*}}}} \right. \kern-0em} {{\text{Eu}}_{{{\text{aver}}}}^{*}}}\) vary from 0.63 (Pretoria Group) to 1.11 (Kambalda area).
Normalization of La, Sm, Eu, Gd, Yb and Th, as well as (La/Yb)N and Eu/Eu* values in individual samples, to the Middle Archean mudstone (Condie, 1993) made it possible to define some types of their distribution (Fig. 4).
Distribution of some REE and Th values normalized to the Middle Archean mudstone (Condie, 1993), as well as (La/Yb)N and Eu/Eu* values, in metaterrigenous rocks (metaaleuropelites). (a) Isua and Akilia associations, western Greenland; (b) George Creek Group, Pilbara Block/Craton, Western Australia; (c) Supergroup Witwatersrand, Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa; (d) Kola Group, Baltic Shield; (e) Narmes paragneiss, eastern Finland; (f) Hurwitz Group, Saskatchewan, southern Canada; (g) Kan metamorphic complex, Kan Block, eastern Sayan; (h) Wa-Lawra Belt, Ghana; (i) Ladoga Group, northern Ladoga region.
For example, the Th content in Isua and Akilia metapelites is appreciably lower than in the Middle Archean mudstone, and (La/Yb)N values are lower. The REE content in these metapelites is also usually low (Condie, 1993).
With respect to Th and REE contents, as well as (La/Yb)N and Eu/Eu* values, metaterrigenous rocks of the George Creek Group (Pilbara Block) and Witwatersrand Supergroup (K8, Booysens, Roodepoort, and Packtown formations) match the Middle Archean mudstone (Condie, 1993). In general, high-aluminous gneisses of the Kola Group are similar to the Middle Archean mudstone, but they are characterized by variations in the Yb content and (La/Yb)N value. Nearly similar characteristics are typical for the Namres gneisses (eastern Finland).
Metaterrigenous rocks of the Hurwitz Group are characterized by wide variations of the Th content. In metapelites of the Kan Complex, the trend is similar, but the variation of (La/Yb)N is more significant. In metaterrigenous rocks of the Wa-Lawra Belt, the La content is slightly lower, but the Th content is appreciably lower than in the Middle Archean mudstone (Condie, 1993).
Finally, in metaterrigenous rocks of the Ladoga Group, values for the majority of elements under consideration, except Yb and Eu/Eu*, agree well with the Middle Archean mudstone (Condie, 1993), whereas (La/Yb)N values can be slightly higher or lower relative to the Archean mudstone.
DISCUSSION
Before discussing the results, it is necessary to examine some fundamental issues: (1) did the rivers exist in the Early Precambrian and what were their characteristics? (2) what was the composition of Early Precambrian provenances and how did they evolve and differ from the later provenances? (3) was the temporal evolution of the chemical composition of igneous rocks reflected in the composition of their washout products and, consequently, in the position of their data points in the above diagrams? Probably, there can be more questions, but let us focus here on the above issues.
Early Precambrian Rivers
Precambrian alluvial systems, whose sediments were deposited in areas devoid of ground vegetation, are considered usually as counterparts of the younger river systems in arid zones (Corenblit and Steiger, 2009; Cotter, 1978; Gibling et al., 2014; Santos and Owen, 2016; Schumm, 1968; and others). The majority of researchers believe that Early Precambrian alluvial systems comprise numerous furcated/braided, relatively shallow-water wide channels that rapidly change their position in space. They were filled up rapidly with water and broadened significantly during floods, since the coastal rock strength was weakened because of very low cohesion of sediment particles, resulting in predominance of the surficial or areal drainage (Bridgland et al., 2014). Channels of the furcated river systems were characterized by high values of the width/depth ratio varying from 200 : 1 to 1000 : 1 (Bridgland et al., 2014; Cotter, 1978; Els, 1990; Fuller, 1985; Santos and Owen, 2016). Deposits in such river systems are characterized commonly by a small volume of the fine-grained sedimentsFootnote 5. The majority of facies associations formed in such deposits were controlled mainly by flows loaded with the clastic material (Hjellbakk, 1997; Long, 2006, 2011 and others; Marconato et al., 2014; Røe, 1987; Santos et al., 2014; Santos and Owen, 2016; Sønderholm and Tirsgaard, 1998; Williams and Foden, 2011; Winston, 1978). However, according to some recent works (Ielpi et al., 2017, 2018), the Proterozoic environment included, in addition to the furcated river systems, deep channels with the width/depth ratio similar to that in the Phanerozoic analogs.
Alluvial deposits are known in Paleoarchean (3.6–3.2 Ga) sections (Long, 2019 and references therein). For example, the lower part of the Paleoarchean section in the Pilbara Craton (Western Australia) includes at least four intervals presumably composed of such rocks (Bridgland et al., 2014). In the Kaapvaal Craton (South Africa), alluvial and analogous deposits of the same age are present in the Onverwacht and Fig Tree groups. In active tectonic settings of greenstone belts, alluvial fans composed of conglomerates or fan-delta associations were formed during this time and later (Corcoran and Mueller, 2004; Mueller and Corcoran, 1998; Mueller and Dimroth, 1987; and others). In some places, such successions grade into the distal pebble or sand deposits in the furcated river plains, but more typical are transitions from the fan deposits to the shallow-marine deposits (Eriksson, 1978; Eriksson et al., 2006; Fedo and Eriksson, 1996; Pickett, 2002).
In the Mesoarchean (3.2–2.8 Ga ago), the number of nucleus and size of cratons increased. In the Craton Pilbara, presumably alluvial deposits of this age are recorded among rocks of the George Creek Group, as well as in sections of the Lalla Rookh, Mosquito Creek, and other formations. In South Africa, such rocks are known in sections of the Moodies Group. Sand and conglomerate deposits of the furcated and/or braided river plains occur in the Central Rand and Pongola groups, as well as some other successions (Els, 1998; Eriksson et al., 2006; Long, 2019 and references therein).
Neoarchean (2.8–2.5 Ga ago) alluvial deposits are known in South Africa (Ventersdorp Supergroup, Shamvian Group, and others), North America (Beauieu River/Rapids Formation, Jackson Lake, Kescarrah, and others), South America, and Australia (Fortescue, Black Flag, and other groups). Commonly, they represent deposits of fans and furcated and/or braided rivers. They were deposited in rift zones, strike-slip and pull-apart structures, and foothills.
The formation of large cratons and Kenorland Supercontinent in the Neoarchean–Paleoproterozoic promoted the appearance of perennial multichannel river systems (Eriksson et al., 2006). Many researchers believe that precisely this period fostered the final development of the “Precambrian alluvial style” dominated by very large braided but shallow channels (with a constant stable water flow) in river systems (Eriksson et al., 1998). Width of such systems could reach 150 km or more (Eriksson et al., 2006; Schreiber and Eriksson, 1992).
As noted in (Long, 2011), the architecture of Precambrian successions suggests that they include deposits from 12 types of rivers among 16 types described in (Miall, 1996). Based on a later estimate by D. Long (2019), approximately one-third of all documented alluvial deposits in Archean are represented by sediments of “shallow-water gravel rivers,” according to the classification in (Miall, 1996). Deposits of “gravel rivers” with clastic flows and constant perennial “sand rivers” account for as much as 36 vol % of Precambrian alluvial deposits; sediments of “sandy alluvial cover systems” make up approximately 12 vol %; and deposits of “deep gravel rivers” account for 8 vol %. The presence of fine-grained and clayey rock layers among the sand–gravel deposits is most likely related to tidal processes or sedimentation in lacustrine and analogous settings, but not to the existence of meandering rivers in the Precambrian.
Thus, rivers served as one of the main agents for transporting the clastic material (fine-grained and clayey material included) from continents to the terminal drainage basins in the Early Precambrian. Based on the analysis of some geochemical parameters of Precambrian fine-grained rocks (pelites and metaaleuropelites), which occur in the alluvial sections or shallow-marine (probably, in deep-water turbidites as well) successions of this age, we can attempt to reconstruct the category of rivers transporting such material.
Here, the following point is noteworthy: composition of the coastal- and shallow-marine sediments is appreciably similar with that of the bottom sediments at estuaries of rivers delivering the clastic material to sea. According to (Lisitzyn, 1994 and others), the above-listed facies fields belong to “marginal filters,” i.e., a few hundred meters to hundred kilometers wide belts characterized by the mixing of riverine and marine waters. Fluctuations in the World Ocean level, as well as the intertidal, wind-induced, alongshore, and other currents, promote the transport of sedimentary material from marginal filters to shelves (Gordeev and Lisitzyn, 2014 and others). Consequently, shelf sediments inherit to a certain extent (sometimes significantly) the lithogeochemical signature of particulates transported by rivers.
Early Precambrian Provenances
In the multivolume monograph (Magmaticheskie …, 1983–1988), evolution of the Earth is divided into the following tectonomagmatic stages: (1) “lunar” (primary crust stage), >3.8 Ga ago; (2) “nuclear,” 3.8–2.5 Ga ago; (3) “cratonic,” 2.5–1.5 Ga ago; and (4) “continental-oceanic,” 1.5 Ga ago to the Present time.
During the lunar stage, the bulk composition of crust was close to basalt–andesibasalt. The nuclear stage was characterized by areal magmatism, igneous rocks of normal alkalinity, wide development of komatiites (basically atypical for post-Archean rocks), granite gneisses, and “gray gneisses,” migmatites, and charnokites. According to this monograph, this stage was marked by the appearance of large plutons of mafic igneous rocks, rapakivi granites, and alkaline granites, but it was dominated by plagiogranites. Recent data, however, suggest the following conclusion: significant volumes of “real K-granitoids” appeared by the end-Archean (Neoarchean), but the total volume of TTG association rocks decreased in the Proterozoic, relative to the Archean. The (La/Yb)N value decreased in the Proterozoic rocks (Condie, 2018 and others; Dhuime et al., 2015; Laurent et al., 2014; Moyen and Laurent, 2018; Tang et al., 2016; and others). Gabbro–anorthosites formed at the end of the lunar stage.
The nuclear stage is characterized by cratons with the platform cover and intracratonic activation zones. The role of granite gneisses, migmatites, charnokites, anorthosites, and rapakivi granites increased appreciably. The basalt–dolerite traps appeared. The end of this stage was marked by the formation of ultramafic alkaline rocks with carbonatites, kimberlites, Alpine-type ultramafic rocks, and ophiolites. This stage is characterized by a significant role of the differentiated peridotite–pyroxenite–norite plutons. Alkaline granites and gabbroids became widespread at the end of this stage.
A nearly similar concept was proposed by N.L. Dobretsov (2010) who divided the early history of our planet into the following intervals (Fig. 5): (1) 4.55–4.0 to 3.9 Ga, Hadean; (2) 4.0 to 3.9–2.7 Ga, ArcheanFootnote 6; (3) 2.7 to 2.6–1.8 Ga, Paleoproterozoic; and (4) 1.7–0.7 Ga, Mesoproterozoic and first half of the Neoproterozoic. The first interval was marked by an intense cooling of the mantle, disappearance of the magmatic “ocean,” and beginning of the formation of crust (possibly, continental included). The second interval was marked by the formation of primary granite crust, as well as the development of “gray gneisses” and TTG association rocks. From 30 to 50 vol % of the continental crust formed by the end of this stage. Approximately 2.7 Ga ago, significant volumes of K‑granites and alkaline rocks appeared. The third interval was marked by the formation of as much as 90 vol % of the continental crust. In contrast, the fourth interval was characterized by low endogenic activity.
Position of objects discussed in the present paper in the International Stratigraphic Scale for the Precambrian and inferred composition of protoliths (a), Archean—Paleoproterozoic main events (b), according to (Dobretsov, 2010), and assumed evolution of the provenance composition (c), according to (Kholodov, 1975, 2006). Composition of protoliths: (1) ultramafic rocks; (2) mafic volcanic rocks; (3) granitoids; (4) sedimentary rocks. Encircled numbers designate the studied objects, same as in Fig. 3. (ICC) International Chronostratigraphic Chart, (A) Mesoproterozoic, (B) Calimian.
Thus, according to the Russian geological literature, it is traditionally believed that the relative abundance of petrographically different rocks in the continental block changes from the Precambrian to the Present Period (Kholodov, 1975, 2006, and others). It is also assumed that the geochemical characteristics of continental drainage controlled by the volume/area ratio of igneous rock terrains in water catchment basins also changed in time. Based on this assumption, we can outline several stages of the rock composition evolution in provenances (Fig. 5). The first stage (~4.0–3.0 Ga ago) was marked by the prevalence of primitive basaltoids in drainage zones. The second stage (3.0–2.0 Ga) was characterized by the prevalence of granitoidsFootnote 7 (granites, their alaskite varieties, rapakivi granites, as well as the associated mafic–ultramafic rocks, granodiorites/tonalites/trondhjemites, adamellites, and others in paleocatchment areas. During the Proterozoic, sedimentary cover appeared on continents. At the beginning of the Proterozoic, in addition to the mixed igneous and metamorphic rocks, erosion products of sedimentary rocks were also involved (lithogenic/“second cycle” rocks began to appear and dominate gradually). The third stage (2.0–1.0 Ga) was marked by the formation of large plutons of rapakivi granites, gabbros, anorthosites, pyroxenites, and other mafic igneous rocks against the background of general decrease of magmatic activity within cratons.
When analyzing the above data, one should bear in mind the following point. As noted in (Kholodov, 2006), during the gradual complication of the structure and composition of provenances, “…each subsequent phase of magmatism adds a new portion of mineralogical-geochemical components to the previous assemblage of minerals and chemical elements, but does not change it basically (italicization by authors of the present paper). Therefore, the composition of the total continental drainage at each new evolution stage, probably, did not change the structure dramatically but imparted a new mineralogical-geochemical signature.” Given that no fundamental changes occurred in the continental drainage at each new evolution stage of our planet, we should make, for example, the following conclusion. The granite/gneiss–greenstone fields/belts (ultramafic and mafic volcanic rocks, volcanosedimentary rocks and granite plutons) appeared and played a crucial role in the Archean. During the entire subsequent history, as well as after the exhumation and washout (not essential) in the end-Proterozoic or Devonian and Jurassic, this terrain delivered a sufficiently monotype aluminosiliciclastic material to sedimentation fields. In other words, such terrains or granite gneiss-dominated fields were eroded for some time. Then, they generated the clastic material, but their main geochemical characteristics did not differ fundamentally.
According to A.B. Ronov (1993), evolution of the composition of provenances from the Archean to the Present Period is reflected in the successive contraction of mafic effusive exposures and expansion of sedimentary rock terrains. The area of granite exposures reached the maximum at the end of the Middle Proterozoic. Then, it reduced gradually due to overlapping of the crystalline basement by the platform cover, resulting in the gradual change of the composition in terrigenous weathering products delivered from the continent erosion fields to the terminal drainage basins.
Based on a great body of analytical data, Ronov made the following conclusion: the chemical composition of pre-Phanerozoic mafic and ultramafic rocks, as well as granitoids, changed successively from the older to younger generations. All igneous rock types demonstrate a gradual decrease of MgO, Ni, Co, and Cr. The Ni/Co value also decreases, but the K2O content increases. The rocks are characterized by the accumulation of Rb, LREE (REE in general), Th, U, Hf, Nb, Pb, and several other elements. At the same time, one can see a sign-variable trend of Na, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, Ti, Fe, and V concentrations in different types of igneous rocks. For example, average Na2O content in basalts increases from the Early Archean to the end-Proterozoic, but the value of this parameter in clayey rocks increases at first and decreases later from the Early Archean to Early Proterozoic. In granites, Na2Oaver decreases from the Early Archean to Early Proterozoic. In the Middle and Late Proterozoic granites, value of this parameter is nearly similar to that in the Middle and Late Archean. The La/Yb value decreases gradually in granitoids, but increases in basalts. According to (Ronov, 1993), “…values of La/Yb in basalts and granites become gradually similar during the contraction of the granite exposure area and expansion of the basalt field in drainage zones.”
Evolution of the Composition of Igneous Rocks and Position of Data Points of Their Erosion Products in (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* and (La/Yb)N–Th Diagrams
Based on average REE contents in Early Archean (3.80–3.40 Ga), Middle and Late Archean (3.40–2.50 Ga), as well as Early Proterozoic (2.50–1.60 Ga) komatiites, mafic effusive rocks, and granitoids reported in Ronov (1993, Table 25), we calculated (La/Yb)N and Eu/Eu* values. Composition fields of the aleuropelitic particulates of different-category modern rivers outlined in the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* diagram (Fig. 6a)Footnote 8 suggest the following conclusion. Data points of the averaged composition of Middle–Late Archean and Early Proterozoic komatiites, as well as Archean and Early Proterozoic mafic rocks, are located in the fields of surficial bottom sediments at estuaries of modern category 4 rivers. They represent rivers feeding on erosion products of volcanic fields, except for Early Archean komatiites (their average composition is sufficiently close to the above field). Data points of the average composition of Middle–Late Archean and Early Proterozoic granitoids gravitate toward the fields of bottom sediments at estuaries of modern category 3 rivers, i.e., rivers draining metamorphic and/or magmatic terrains). Data point of the average composition of Early Archean granitoids is situated slightly higher but sufficiently close to this field.
Distribution of data points with the averaged composition of Archean and Proterozoic igneous rocks in (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* and (La/Yb)N–Th diagrams. (a, d) Average compositions, according to (Ronov, 1993): (1) komatiites; (2) mafic effusive rocks; (3) granitoids. (AR1) Early Archean (3.8–3.4 Ga ago); (AR2 + 3) Middle and Late Archean (3.4–2.5 Ga); (PR1) Early Proterozoic (2.5–1.6 Ga); (b, c, e, f) the same, according to (Condie, 1993): (4) komatiites; (5) calc-alkaline basalts; (6) andesites; (7) felsic volcanic rocks; (8) TTG association rocks; (9) granites. (AR1) Early Archean (>3.5 Ga); (AR2) Late Archean (3.5–2.5 Ga); (PR1) Early Proterozoic (2.5–1.8 Ga); (PR2) Middle Proterozoic (1.8–1.6 Ga).
Data on the REE content in Archean komatiites coupled with Early and Late Archean, Early and Late Proterozoic, as well as Archean and Proterozoic granites and TTG association rocks are also given in the summary work (Condie, 1993). However, data points of Archean and Proterozoic granitoids and TTG association rocks adopted from the above summary lie on the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* diagram beyond the field corresponding to the aleuropelitic particulates of modern category 3 rivers (Fig. 6b). At the same time, the majority of points (except Late Proterozoic felsic volcanic rocks and Early Proterozoic andesites) of the average composition of basalts, andesites, and felsic volcanic rocks gravitate toward the fields of aleuropelitic sediments in category 4 rivers (Figs. 6b, 6c). Approximately similar distribution is observed for data points of the averaged composition of all above-mentioned igneous rock sources of the fine-grained aluminosiliciclastics in the (La/Yb)N–Th diagram (Figs. 6d, 6e). Archean and Early Proterozoic komatiites and mafic effusive rocks (data of A.B. Ronov) gravitate toward field 4. Data points of Middle–Late Archean and Early Proterozoic granites occur in the overlap zone of fields 1 and 3, but the Th content in these granites is appreciably higher than in Early Archean granitoids. Field 4 of the (La/Yb)N–Th diagram also includes data points of the average composition of Archean and Early Proterozoic komatiites and calc-alkaline basalts (data of K. Condie). Data points of Archean and Proterozoic granites, as well as Proterozoic TTG association rocks occur in the overlap zone of fields 1 and 3 (only the data point of the Middle Archean TTG association does not belong to any of the fields in the plot). It is also noteworthy that data points of the average composition of Archean and Early Proterozoic andesites, felsic volcanic rocks, and/or felsites adopted from K. Condie (1993) lie in this diagram in field 4 of the fine-grained sediments related to the washout of rocks from volcanic terrains.
The obtained results suggest the following conclusion. Variations in the Th–REE systematics of the main types of Archean and Early Proterozoic igneous rocks, probably, do not influence the distribution of their erosion products in (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* and (La/Yb)N–Th diagrams, as well as in other diagrams showing the fields of surficial bottom sediments at estuaries of modern different-category rivers. In other words, if the provenance comprises Early Archean basalts (or felsic volcanic rocks), Early Proterozoic basalts, or Late Proterozoic andesites (i.e., some “volcanic terrains” are involved), data points of the washout products of such paleowater catchment areas (aleuropelitic particulates) will be confined mainly or exclusively to the fields of the fine-grained particulates of category 4 river.
Distribution of Data Points of the Metaterrigenous Rocks in (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* and (La/Yb)N–Th Diagrams
Data points of metaterrigenous rocks in our sampling (22 objects in total) diagram are located in all classification fields of the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* diagram, including field 3 corresponding to the fine-grained aleuropelitic particulates of rivers feeding on erosion products of igneous and metamorphic rocks (Fig. 7a). Some data points do not fall into any of the four fields.
Distribution of data points of the composition of individual samples (a) and data points with the averaged composition (b) of metaterrigenous rocks (metaaleuropelites) from different objects in the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* diagram. (ArMud) Middle Archean mudstone, according to (Condie, 1993), (PAAS) Post-Archean Australian Shale, according to (Taylor and McLennan, 1985). Legend nos. 1–22 are as in Figs. 3; (23) values of the standard deviation.
Individual data points of Eoarchean pelites in Western Greenland lie mainly in fields of the fine-grained aleuropelitic particulates of category 4 rivers draining the volcanic rock-dominated water catchment areas. Some data points with Eu/Eu* > 1.05 can also be assigned to this field, because (La/Yb)N is <8.00 in them.
Paleoarchean metaterrigenous rocks of the Beit Bridge Complex (Limpopo Belt) in the diagram are characterized by a significant scatter of data points located in the fields of particulates of category 1, 2, and 4 rivers or beyond them.
Data points of metasedimentary rocks of the Paleoarchean Moodies Group lie mainly in the field of particulates of category 4 rivers. Metaterrigenous rocks of the Mesoarchean George Creek Group (Pilbara Block) lie in or near this field. Pelites of the Mesoarchean Mozaan Group demonstrate a nearly similar distribution in the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* diagram, but some of their data points occur beyond the overlap zone of fields corresponding to the particulates of category 1, 2, and 4 rivers.
The majority of data points of metasedimentary rocks of the Mesoarchean Witwatersrand Supergroup are concentrated in field 4. However, one pelite point (out of 10 data points) occurs in the overlap zone of particulates of category 1 and 2 rivers; two points occur in the overlap zone of particulates of category 1–3 rivers; and one point does not fit any of the classification fields in the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* diagram.
Data points of high-aluminous gneisses from the Meso-Neoarchean (?) Kola Group in the diagram show random distribution. Data points of Neoarchean metaterrigenous rocks in western Karelia are distributed in all four fields and even beyond them. A similar distribution is also seen for data points of the Neoarchean Narmes high-aluminous gneisses (eastern Finland).
In contrast, Neoarchean metasedimentary rocks of the Kambalda area (Western Australia) gravitate mainly toward the field of particulates of category 4 rivers. A similar patter is observed for data points of Paleoproterozoic pelites in the Wa-Lawra Belt.
Data points of Neoarchean metaterrigenous rocks of the Onot greenstone belt (southeastern Sayan region) gravitate mainly toward the overlap zone of fields 1 and 2 in the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* diagram. Data points of Neoarchean pelites of the Rampur Group also gravitate toward this zone.
The majority of data points of metasedimentary rocks of the Neoarchean Yellowknife Group (mainly fine-clastic turbidites deposited near the continental slope) do not belong to any of the fields under consideration. This statement is also valid for the high-aluminous gneisses of the Paleoproterozoic (Orosirian) Kongling Complex (Yangtze Craton).
Nearly one-half of data points of the Paleoproterozoic (Rhyacian) Pretoria Group pelites occur in the overlap zone of fields 1 and 2. Another part occurs in the overlap zone of fields 1–3 and in the field of the fine-grained particulates of category 3 rivers draining the magmatic and/or metamorphic terrains.
About two-third of the total number of data points of the Paleoproterozoic (Rhyacian) pelites of the Hurwitz Group (southern Canada) is located in the overlap zone of fields 1–3; the remaining part gravitates toward the overlap zone of fields 1, 2, and 4.
Data points of metaterrigenous rocks of the Paleoproterozoic (Rhyacian) Kan metamorphic complex (eastern Sayan) occur mainly in the field of particulates of category 4 rivers. A minor number of data points do not belong to any of the fields in (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* diagrams. Some data points occur in the field of particulates of category 2 rivers or in overlap zones of fields 1 and 3, as well as fields 2 and 3.
Data points of metaterrigenous rocks of the Paleoproterozoic (Orosirian) Ladoga Group are distributed almost equally in the overlap zone of fields 1 and 2, as well as in the field of particulates of category 3 rivers draining the magmatic and metamorphic complexes.
Metaterrigenous rocks of the lower amphibolite–marble–paragneiss sequence of the Paleoproterozoic (Orosirian) Yenisei metamorphic complex (Yenisei Ridge) lack any fixed position in the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* diagram. Data points of gneisses and shales of the fourth (paragneiss) sequence the Yenisei Complex gravitate mainly toward the overlap zone of particulates of category 1 and 2 rivers.
Two among five data points of the Paleoproterozoic (Statherian) metaterrigenous rocks of the Gawler Craton (South Australia) in the diagram belong to particulates of category 4 rivers. Reality of this situation, however, is doubtful, because these rocks are characterized usually by the highest average content of Th and the highest (La/Yb)N value (Table 1). The remaining three data points do not belong to any of the classification fields in the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* diagram.
Data points of the averaged composition of metaterrigenous rocks and pelites in different objects of our sampling gravitate mainly toward field 4 (fine-grained particulates of rivers draining volcanic fields), as well as overlap zones of fields 1–2 and 1–3 (Fig. 7b). Data points of the average compositions of metasedimentary rocks of the Kola Group and Gawler Craton do not fall into any of the classification fields.
In the (La/Yb)N–Th diagram, data points of metaterrigenous rocks also occur in classification fields, but some points are located beyond these fields (Fig. 8a). Data points of Eoarchean pelites of the Isua and Akilia associations (Western Greenland) in this plot, as in the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* diagram, gravitate toward the compositional field of the fine-grained particulates of category 4 rivers. Metaterrigenous rocks of the Limpopo belt do not show any specific distribution in the (La/Yb)N–Th diagram.
Distribution of data points of the composition in individual samples (a) and data points with the averaged composition (b) in metaterrigenous rocks (metaaleuropelites) from different objects in the (La/Yb)N–Th diagram. Legend as in Figs. 3 and 7.
Data points of metaterrigenous rocks of the Paleoarchean Moodies Group in this diagram gravitate mainly toward the field of bottom sediments of category 4 rivers draining volcanic fields.
Metaterrigenous rocks of the George Creek Group (Mesoarchean) in this diagram, in contrast to the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* diagram, occur in the overlap zone of fields 1 and 2 (large rivers and rivers feeding on erosion products of mainly sedimentary rocks).
Data points of the Mozaan Group (Mesoarchean) pelites gravitate toward or cluster near field 4. The (La/Yb)N–Th diagram shows a similar distribution of data points of metasedimentary rocks in the Witwatersrand Supergroup (Mesoarchean) and in western Karelia (Neoarchean).
Approximately one-third of data points of the Kola Group (Meso-Neoarchean?) high-aluminous gneisses is located in the overlap zone of fields 1 and 2. Among the remaining nine data points, one point is located in field 4, and the position of five points does not fit any of the classification fields.
With respect to the Th content, almost all compositional data points of the Narmes high-aluminous gneisses (eastern Finland) correspond to the classification field 4, but the majority is characterized by higher (atypical for this field) values of (La/Yb)N < 10. Field 4 also accommodates all data points of metasedimentary rocks of the Kambalda area. As shown above, this pattern is also typical for their data points in the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* diagram.
In terms of the Th content and (La/Yb)N values, Neoarchean metaterrigenous rocks of the Onot greenstone belt gravitate mainly toward the compositional field of the fine-grained particulates of large rivers, and only point among five data points occurs in field 4.
Approximately one-third of metaturbidite data points from the Neoarchean Yellowknife Group in the (La/Yb)N–Th diagram are confined to the field of the fine-grained particulates of category 4 rivers. Th remaining data points do not fall into any of the classification fields.
Metapelites of the Rampur Group (Neoarchean) fall mainly into the overlap zone of field I (fine particulates of large rivers and field 2 (particulates of rivers draining mainly sedimentary rocks). As shown above, a similar pattern is observed in the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* diagram.
Approximately similar distribution is seen in the (La/Yb)N–Th diagram for data points of pelites from the Paleoproterozoic Pretoria and Hurwitz groups.
Data points of metaterrigenous rocks of the Kan Complex (Rhyacian) occur mainly in field 4 and overlap zone of fields 1 and 2. A similar pattern is displayed by compositional data points of the Paleoproterozoic high-aluminous gneisses of the Kongling Complex. The majority of data points of the Ladoga Group (Orosirian) metaterrigenous rocks also gravitate toward the overlap zone of fields 1 and 2, and some data points fall into field 4.
Paleoproterozoic metapelites of the Wa-Lawra Belt in the (La/Yb)N–Th plot, as in the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu*diagram, are confined to the field of aleuropelitic particulates of category 4 rivers.
Paleoproterozoic metaterrigenous rocks of the first (amphibolite–marble–paragneiss) and fourth (paragneiss) sequences of the Yenisei metamorphic complex in the (La/Yb)N–Th diagram are clustered mainly in the overlap zone of fields 1–3. Such distribution of the compositional data points of this complex is similar to that in the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* diagram.
Distribution of data points of metaterrigenous rocks of the Gawler Craton (Paleoproterozoic, Statherian) in the (La/Yb)N–Th diagram lacks any specific regularity. The majority of data points do not fall into any of the classification fields (Fig. 9).
Fields of the composition of metaterrigenous rocks at some objects in the (La/Yb)N–Th diagram. Domains of sediments in different-category rivers as in Fig. 2.
Data points of the averaged composition of metaterrigenous rocks from different objects of our sampling in the (La/Yb)N–Th diagram occur mainly in field 4, zones of its overlapping by fields 1 and 2, and proper overlap zone of fields 1 and 2. The compositional field of aleuropelitic particulates of modern category 3 rivers (draining magmatic and/or metamorphic terrains) lacks any data point of the average composition. Data point of the average composition of metaterrigenous rocks of the Gawler Craton occurs, as in the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* diagram, beyond any of the classification fields (Fig. 8b).
CONCLUSIONS
In (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* and (La/Yb)N–Th diagrams, data points of individual and averaged compositions of the studied Archean and Early Proterozoic metaaleuropelites occur mainly within the classification fields. Hence, the substrate-sources of their fine-grained aluminosiliciclastics did not differ basically from the substrates observed on the Earth’s surface at presentFootnote 9. Some data points of individual metaaleuropelite samples occur in the diagrams beyond the classification fields, but this can be caused both by the metamorphic transformation of the initial Th and REE distribution and by the specific feature of paleowater catchment areas in the geological past, as suggested by compositions with high Eu/Eu* values.
The overwhelming majority of data points of both individual samples and averaged metasedimentary rocks in the studied objects gravitate toward field 1 (fine aleuropelitic particulates of large rivers), field 2 (fine aleuropelitic particulates of rivers draining mainly sedimentary substrates), field 4 (fine aleuropelitic particulates of rivers draining volcanic rock terrains), and overlap zone of fields 1–3. Data points of metaaleuropelites are scarce in field 3 proper (fine aleuropelitic particulates of rivers draining the magmatic and/or metamorphic terrains). Probably, provenances dominated by K-granites only appeared after the formation of the global system of Paleoproterozoic collisional orogens—a global event related to the first supercontinent (Columbia) emergence approximately 2.0–1.8 Ga ago. In our sampling, objects of this type can be represented by the Gawler Craton metapelites with very high (La/Yb)N values and, probably, by metapelites of the Yenisei Group. This assumption, however, needs additional substantiation with the factual material, but it is supported to a significant extent by the concept of A. Ronov suggesting the maximum development of granites on the Earth’s surface at the end of the Middle Proterozoic. Note, however, that the main mass of the fine-grained aluminosiliciclastics (washout products of such substrates) was involved in sedimentary cycles in the Late Proterozoic, which is not discussed in the present paper.
Data points of rock composition in the studied objects with an age of >2.8 Ga in the (La/Yb)N–Eu/Eu* diagram are clustered mainly in field 4. Hence, if our previous assumptions are correct, large rivers and rivers draining mainly sedimentary rocks, probably, did not exist prior to the above-mentioned time, and processes of the recycling of the fine-grained aluminosiliciclastics were reduced.
It is evident that significant expansion of the craton nuclea by the end-Mesoarchean (approximately 2.8 Ga ago) should lead and, probably, led to appreciable expansion of water catchment areas of river basinsFootnote 10, and, correspondingly, to the appearance of rocks gravitating toward fields 1 and 2 in both diagrams under consideration. Thus, our results suggest, first of all, a gradual change of water catchment areas of river systems. Evidently, when their field reached the optimal size, conditions became favorable for the deposition of sediments of certain type, e.g., deposits of large and/or category 1 rivers. As is known, the share of sedimentary rocks also increased gradually on the Earth’s surface, fostering the formation of alluvial deposits represented mainly or exclusively by erosion products of sedimentary rocks.
The compositional evolution of the continental crust during the Earth’s entire history is an issue of keen interest for researchers. In the early 1980s, this issue was scrutinized in (Condie, 1993; McLennan, 1989; McLennan and Taylor, 1991; Taylor and McLennan, 1985, 1995 and others). In particular, analysis of several rare and trace elements in the fine-grained sedimentary rocks revealed the following regularity (Taylor and McLennan, 1985): the distribution of these elements in Archean deposits differs from the pattern in younger deposits, because the bulk composition of the Archean crust was less differentiated and more femic, relative to the Proterozoic and Phanerozoic crust. The Archean fine-grained and/or clayey rocks are characterized by appreciably lower values of parameters, such as LREE/HREE, Th/Sc, La/Sc, and Eu/Eu* ratios, relative to the younger sedimentary rocks (Taylor and McLennan, 1985). However, the authors of some later publications (e.g., Gibbs et al., 1986; Jahn and Condie, 1995) doubted the concept of drastic changes in values of the above parameters at the Archean/Proterozoic boundary. In the cratonic fine-grained clastic rocks, the Archean/Phanerozoic transition is marked by appreciable decrease of Sc and Cr; the Archean/ Proterozoic transition, by the decrease of Sc, V, Cr, Co, and Ni (rare and trace elements typical of ultramafic and mafic igneous rocks) (Condie, 1993). This fact is also considered by many researchers as an argument in favor of compositional evolution of the Earth’s upper continental crust that was washed out in the Early Precambrian. Note, however, that almost 30 years have passed after the publication of (Taylor and McLennan, 1985). Therefore, it is surely necessary to revisit this issue with the consideration of new factual material accumulated in the late period.
Interest of researchers to this issue has risen again after some pause in the initial 2000s. For example, Tang et al. (2016) recorded that Ni/Co and Cr/Zn values in the fine-grained terrigenous rocks decreased during the Archean, and values typical of the modern upper continental crust was only achieved at the end-Archean. This trend reflects the gradual development of a more felsic and mature low-Mg upper crust from the Mesoarchean (3.5 to 3.0 Ga) to the Neoarchean (3.0 to 2.5 Ga)). In (Greber and Dauphas, 2019), several indicator ratios (indicators of the presence of komatiites along with mafic and felsic igneous rocks in the provenance) were used to analyze the “chemical” and “lithological” gradual temporal variations in continents and clastic material provenances. These authors demonstrated that Al2O3/TiO2aver values in the fine-grained terrigenous rocks decreased gradually from 26.2 ± 1.3 in the Archean to 22.1 ± 1.1 in the Phanerozoic. Based on calculation of the mass budget, they concluded that the geochemical characteristics (Al2O3/TiO2, Zr/TiO2, La/Sc, Th/Sc, Ni/Co, and Cr/Sc) of the Phanerozoic fine-grained rocks suggest the presence of the following rocks in the continent surface during the above-mentioned time segment: igneous felsic rocks 76 ± 8 wt %, island-arc basalts 14 ± 6 wt %, and intraplate basalts 10 ± 2 wt %. Correspondingly, proportions of the Paleoarchean igneous rocks in erosion fields were slightly different: felsic rocks 65 ± 7 wt %, mafic rocks 25 ± 6 wt %, and komatiites 11 ± 3 wt %).
We do not challenge this conclusion. Our work was dedicated to a different aspect of this issue and accomplished with another tool. We do believe, however, that comparison of the obtained results coupled with elucidation and interpretation of their interrelation are undoubtedly interesting and promising. All these considerations stimulated us to examine the above-mentioned issue, and we hope to continue the research in this field.
Notes
Category 1—“large rivers” (major rivers in the world), i. e., rivers (>100 000 km2) characterized by intricate water catchment areas; category 2—rivers draining “mixed/sedimentary” rocks; category 3—rivers with the water catchment area of 100 to 95 000 km2 (Bayon et al., 2015) draining “igneous/metamorphic” terrains; category 4—rivers draining “volcanic” rock provenances). The water catchment area of modern rivers of this category varies, according to (Bayon et al., 2015), mainly from <100 to 56 000 km2 (Kamchatka River is the sole example).
Precisely these REEs were chosen because they are used to calculate (La/Yb)N and Eu/Eu* values for drawing the diagrams discussed in the given work.
These analytical data are available upon request to e-mail address of the first author.
Note that the duration of rock formation in the analyzed objects is unknown, yet weakly substantiated, or more significant, relative to Riphean–Phanerozoic objects.
According to the overview of pre-Devonian alluvial systems in (Fuller, 1985), the clayey material can be evacuated from them by eolian processes. However, a significant thickness of the fine-grained and clayey sediments retained in the distal sectors of many Early Precambrian basins—e.g., clay intervals (1–2 km thick) described in the basin composed of the Pretoria Group rocks, ~2.3–2.1 Ga, South Africa (Eriksson et al., 2001)—suggests that the river displacement of such material prevailed over deflation in the sedimentation zone (Eriksson et al., 2006). According to (Long, 2019), the fine-grained rocks in Archean alluvial deposits commonly represent silts accumulated mainly in the lacustrine (rather than floodplain) setting.
Note that the Archean/Proterozoic boundary accepted by N.L. Dobretsov differs from that in the General Stratigraphic Scale of Russia (Obshchaya Stratigraficheskaya …, 2002, 2.5 Ga) and the International Chronostratigraphic Chart (https://stratigraphy.org/icschart/ChronostratChart2020-03.pdf. Cited August 3, 2020).
According to (Condie and Wronkiewicz, 1990), based on variations of Cr/Th and several other indicator ratios of the rare and trace elements in Precambrian pelites of the Kaapvaal Craton, its Early Precambrian history included at least four stages of the granitoid magmatism (3.55–3.45, 3.30–3.20, ~3.00, and 2.80–2.55 Ga ago). Some researchers, however, believe that the formation of such ancient granitoids is a specific property of this continental block and they do not extrapolate this regularity to other Early Precambrian cratons.
This assumption is based on the following concept: several rare and trace elements (REE included) are weakly dissolved in water and, therefore, completely evacuated from the source zone to sedimentation basins (Condie and Wronkiewicz, 1990; Cullers, 1995; Inorganic …, 2003; McLennan, 1989; Taylor and McLennan, 1985; and others). Hence, mixed igneous rocks are characterized by different assemblages of the rare and trace elements and their ratios (Interpretatsiya …, 2001; Yudovich and Ketris, 2011 and others).
This statement suggests the following general conclusion: given that some sector of the Earth’s surface was characterized by the riverine washout of a typical Archean rock association (komatiites, plagiogranites, felsic volcanic rocks, and others) at the end of the Archean, this or some other sector of the Earth’s surface could also be characterized by the washout of the same Archean rock association (but with the “addition” of other, younger, rock associations) beginning from the end-Proterozoic to the present time. Naturally, this assumption is most important for the fine-grained sediments from rivers of categories 3 and 4.
Based on (Rainbird and Young, 2009) devoted to “giant rivers of the past”, the tectonic style and, correspondingly, river systems evolved significantly by the end-Archean. Approximately between 2.8 and 2.5 Ga ago, intense magmatic activity led to the formation of large and stable cratons, with the surface marked by the appearance of much larger river systems than that of the modern Amazon. These systems comprised numerous shallow-water intertwining channels. Such rivers began from “tiny sources” located along huge mountain systems and merged into a single intricate network over vast areas.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are sincerely grateful to O.M. Turkina, V.P. Chekulaev, and N.A. Arestova for assistance in the compilation of literature sources. Proposals and remarks of anonymous peers were very useful for refining the manuscript. Illustrations in this paper were fulfilled excellently as always by N.S. Glushkova.
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This work was accomplished in accordance with State Tasks of the Zavaritsky Institute of Geology and Geochemistry (Yekaterinburg), Geological Institute (Moscow), and Institute of Precambrian Geology and Geochronology (St. Petersburg).
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Maslov, A.V., Podkovyrov, V.N. Early Precambrian Metaaleuropelites: REE–Th Systematics as a Key to Reconstruction of Sources for Their Fine-Grained Aluminosiliciclastics. Lithol Miner Resour 56, 212–235 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1134/S0024490221030056
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1134/S0024490221030056