Abstract
This article contributes to the studies of sound symbolism, systematic relationships between sounds and meanings. Specifically, we build on a series of studies conducted within a research paradigm called “Pokémonastics,” which uses the Pokémon universe to explore sound symbolic patterns. Inspired by a study of existing English Pokémon names, two experiments were conducted in which English speakers were provided with pairs of pre-evolution and post-evolution Pokémon characters, the latter of which were larger. The participants were given two name choices whose members were systematically different in some phonological properties. The results show the following sound symbolic patterns to be productive: (1) names with higher segment counts are more likely to be associated with post-evolution characters than names with lower segment counts, (2) names containing [a] are more likely to be associated with post-evolution characters than names containing [i], (3) names containing [u] are more likely to be associated with post-evolution characters than names containing [i], and (4) names containing coronal consonants are more likely to be associated with post-evolution characters than names containing labial consonants. Overall, the current results suggest that phonological considerations come into play when English speakers name new fictional creatures. Implications of the current results for the theories of sound symbolism are discussed throughout the paper.
Funding source: Japan Society for the Promotion of Science
Award Identifier / Grant number: #17K13448
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to two anonymous reviewers for their challenging yet constructive comments. We are also grateful to Donna Erickson for comments on previous versions of this paper. The experimental data, as well as the R-syntax files used to create result figures and execute statistical analyses, are available as supplementary material. This research is supported by the JSPS grant #17K13448 (PI: Shigeto Kawahara). All remaining errors are ours. Experiments that follow up the current research are reported in Kawahara and Breiss (2021).
References
Akita, Kimi. 2015. Sound symbolism. In Jan-Ola Östman & Jef Verschueren (eds.), Handbook of pragmatics, installment 2015. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.10.1075/hop.19.sou1Search in Google Scholar
Akita, Kimi & Mark Dingemanse. 2019. Ideophones (mimetics, expressives). In Mark Aronoff (ed.), Oxford research encyclopedia of linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.477Search in Google Scholar
Alderete, John & Alexei Kochetov. 2017. Integrating sound symbolism with core grammar: The case of expressive palatalization. Language 93. 731–766. https://doi.org/10.1353/lan.2017.0056.Search in Google Scholar
Bankieris, Kaitlyn & Julia Simner. 2015. What is the link between synaesthesia and sound symbolism? Cognition 136. 186–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2014.11.013.Search in Google Scholar
Barr, Dale J. 2013. Random effects structure for testing interactions in linear mixed-effects models. Frontiers in Psychology 4. 328. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00328.Search in Google Scholar
Barr, Dale J., Roger Levy, Christoph Scheepers & Harry J. Tily. 2013. Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: Keep it maximal. Journal of Memory and Language 68. 255–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001.Search in Google Scholar
Berlin, Brent. 2006. The first congress of ethonozoological nomenclature. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 12. 23–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9655.2006.00271.x.Search in Google Scholar
Blasi, Damián E., Søren Wichman, Harald Hammarström, Peter F. Stadler & Morten H. Christianson. 2016. Sound-meaning association biases evidenced across thousands of languages. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113(39). 10818–10823. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1605782113.Search in Google Scholar
Brown, Roger & Marquerite Ford. 1961. Address in American English. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 62. 375–385. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0042862.Search in Google Scholar
Cassidy, Kimberly Wright, Michael H. Kelly & Lee’at J. Sharoni. 1999. Inferring gender from name phonology. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 128. 362–381. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.362.Search in Google Scholar
Cho, Taehong & Peter Ladefoged. 1999. Variation and universals in VOT: Evidence from 18 languages. Journal of Phonetics 27(2). 207–229. https://doi.org/10.1006/jpho.1999.0094.Search in Google Scholar
Chodroff, Eleanor & Colin Wilson. 2014. Burst spectrum as a cue for the stop voicing contrast in American English. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 136(5). 2762–2772. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4896470.Search in Google Scholar
Clements, Nick & Elizabeth Hume. 1995. The internal organization of speech sounds. In John A. Goldsmith (ed.), The handbook of phonological theory, 245–306. Cambridge and Oxford: Blackwell.Search in Google Scholar
Coulter, S. Keith & Robin A. Coulter. 2010. Small sounds, big deals: Phonetic symbolism effects in pricing. Journal of Consumer Research 37(2). 315–328. https://doi.org/10.1086/651241.Search in Google Scholar
Cuskley, Christine & Simon Kirby. 2013. Synesthesia, cross-modality, and language evolution. In Julia Simner & Edward Hubbard (eds.), Oxford handbook of synesthesia. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199603329.013.0043Search in Google Scholar
Cuskley, Christine, Julia Simner & Simon Kirby. 2017. Phonological and orthographic influences in the bouba-kiki effect. Psychologiacl Research 81(1). 119–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-015-0709-2.Search in Google Scholar
Cutler, Anne, James McQueen & Ken Robinson. 1990. Elizabeth and John: Sound patterns of men’s and women’s names. Journal of Linguistics 26. 471–482. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022226700014754.Search in Google Scholar
D’Onofrio, Annette. 2014. Phonetic detail and dimensionality in sound-shape correspondences: Refining the bouba-kiki paradigm. Language and Speech 57(3). 367–393.10.1177/0023830913507694Search in Google Scholar
Daland, Robert, Bruce Hayes, James White, Marc Garellek, Andrea Davis & Ingrid Norrmann. 2011. Explaining sonority projection effects. Phonology 28(2). 197–234. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0952675711000145.Search in Google Scholar
Diffloth, Gérard. 1994. i: Big, a: Small. In Leane Hinton, Johanna Nichols & John Ohala (eds.), Sound symbolism, 107–114. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511751806.008Search in Google Scholar
Dingemanse, Mark. 2015. Ideophones and reduplication: Depiction, description, and the interpretation of repeated talk in discourse. Studies in Language 39(4). 946–970. https://doi.org/10.1075/sl.39.4.05din.Search in Google Scholar
Dingemanse, Mark. 2018. Redrawing the margins of language: Lessons from research on ideophones. Glossa 3(1). 4. https://doi.org/10.5334/gjgl.444.Search in Google Scholar
Dingemanse, Mark, Damián E. Blasi, Lupyan Gary, Morten H. Christiansen & Padraic Monaghan. 2015. Arbitrariness, iconicity and systematicity in language. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 19(10). 603–615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2015.07.013.Search in Google Scholar
Firth, J. R. 1930. The tongues of men & speech. London: Oxford Mission Press.Search in Google Scholar
Fort, Mathilde, Alexa Weiß, Alexander Martin & Sharon Peperkamp. 2013. Looking for the bouba-kiki effect in prelexical infants. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Auditory-Visual Speech Processing, 71–76.Search in Google Scholar
Fuchs, Susanne, Egor Savin, Stephanie Solt, Cornelia Ebert & Manfred Krifka. 2019. Antonym adjective pairs and prosodic iconicity: Evidence from letter replications in an English blogger corpus. Linguistic Vanguard 5(1). 1–15.10.1515/lingvan-2018-0017Search in Google Scholar
Godoy, Mahayana C., Neemias Silva de Souza Filho, Juliana G. Marques de Souza, Hális Alves & Shigeto Kawahara. 2020. Gotta name’em all: An experimental study on the sound symbolism of Pokémon names in Brazilian Portuguese. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 49. 717–740. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-019-09679-2.Search in Google Scholar
Haiman, John. 1980. The iconicity of grammar: Isomorphism and motivation. Language 56(3). 515–540. https://doi.org/10.2307/414448.Search in Google Scholar
Halle, Morris. 2005. Palatalization/velar softening: What it is and what it tells us about the nature of language. Linguistic Inquiry 36(1). 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1162/0024389052993673.Search in Google Scholar
Hamano, Shoko. 1998. The sound-symbolic system of Japanese. Stanford: CSLI Publications.Search in Google Scholar
Hawkins, John & Anne Cutler. 1988. Psycholinguistic factors in morphological asymmetry. In John A. Hawkins (ed.), Explaining language universals, 280–317. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Search in Google Scholar
Hinton, Leane, Johanna Nichols & John Ohala. 1994. Introduction: Sound-symbolic processes. In Leane Hinton, Johanna Nichols & John Ohala (eds.), Sound symbolism, 1–12. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511751806.001Search in Google Scholar
Hockett, Charles. 1959. Animal “languages” and human language. Human Biology 31. 32–39.Search in Google Scholar
Hosokawa, Yuta, Naho Atsumi, Ryoko Uno & Kazuko Shinohara. 2018. Evil or not? Sound symbolism in Pokémon and Disney character names. Talk presented at the 1st international conference on Pokémonastics.Search in Google Scholar
Imai, Mutsumi & Sotaro Kita. 2014. The sound symbolism bootstrapping hypothesis for language acquisition and language evolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 369(1651). https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0298.Search in Google Scholar
Imai, Mutsumi, Sotaro Kita, Miho Nagumo & Hiroyuki Okada. 2008. Sound symbolism facilitates early verb learning. Cognition 109. 54–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2008.07.015.Search in Google Scholar
International Phonetic Association. 1999. Handbook of the International Phonetics Association. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Ito, Junko. 1989. A prosodic theory of epenthesis. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory 7. 217–259.10.1007/BF00138077Search in Google Scholar
Iwasaki, Noriko, David P. Vinson & Gabriella Vigiliocco. 2007. What do English speakers know about gera-gera and yota-yota? A cross-linguistic investigation of mimetic words for laughing and walking. Japanese Language Education Around the Globe 17. 53–78.Search in Google Scholar
Jakobson, Roman. 1941. Child language, aphasia and phonological universals. Translated into English by A. Keiler, 1968. The Hague: Mouton.10.1515/9783111353562Search in Google Scholar
Jespersen, Otto. 1922. Symbolic value of the vowel i. In Linguistica: Selected papers in English, French and German, vol. 1, 283–303. Copenhagen: Levin and Munksgaard.Search in Google Scholar
Johnson, Keith. 2003. Acoustic and auditory phonetics, 2nd edn. Malden and Oxford: Blackwell.Search in Google Scholar
Kantartzis, Katerina, Mutsumi Imai & Sotaro Kita. 2011. Japanese sound symbolism facilitates word learning in English-speaking children. Cognitive Science 35(3). 575–586. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1551-6709.2010.01169.x.Search in Google Scholar
Kawahara, Shigeto. 2006. A faithfulness ranking projected from a perceptibility scale: The case of [+voice] in Japanese. Language 82(3). 536–574. https://doi.org/10.1353/lan.2006.0146.Search in Google Scholar
Kawahara, Shigeto. 2020a. A wug-shaped curve in sound symbolism: The case of Japanese Pokémon names. Phonology 37(3). 383–418. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0952675720000202.Search in Google Scholar
Kawahara, Shigeto. 2020b. Sound symbolism and theoretical phonology. Language and Linguistic Compass 14(8). e12372. https://doi.org/10.1111/lnc3.12372.Search in Google Scholar
Kawahara, Shigeto & Aaron Braver. 2014. Durational properties of emphatically-lengthened consonants in Japanese. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 44(3). 237–260. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0025100314000085.Search in Google Scholar
Kawahara, Shigeto & Canaan Breiss. 2021. Exploraing the nature of cumulativity in sound symbolism: Experimental studies of Pokémonastics with English speakers. Laboratory Phonology 12(1). https://doi.org/10.5334/labphon.280.Search in Google Scholar
Kawahara, Shigeto, Miwa Isobe, Yukino Kobayashi, Tomoko Monou & Reiko Okabe. 2018a. Acquisition of sound symbolic values of vowels and voiced obstruents by Japanese children: Using a Pokémonastics paradigm. Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan 22(2). 122–130.Search in Google Scholar
Kawahara, Shigeto & Gakuji Kumagai. 2019a. Expressing evolution in Pokémon names: Experimental explorations. Journal of Japanese Linguistics 35(1). 3–38. https://doi.org/10.1515/jjl-2019-2002.Search in Google Scholar
Kawahara, Shigeto & Gakuji Kumagai. 2019b. Inferring Pokémon types using sound symbolism: The effects of voicing and labiality. Journal of the Phonetic Society of Japan 23(2). 111–116.Search in Google Scholar
Kawahara, Shigeto & Gakuji Kumagai. 2021. What voiced obstruents symbolically represent in Japanese: Evidence from the Pokémon universe. Journal of Japanese Linguistics 37(1). 3–24.10.1515/jjl-2021-2031Search in Google Scholar
Kawahara, Shigeto, Atsushi Noto & Gakuji Kumagai. 2018b. Sound symbolic patterns in Pokémon names. Phonetica 75(3). 219–244. https://doi.org/10.1159/000484938.Search in Google Scholar
Kawahara, Shigeto, Kazuko Shinohara & Yumi Uchimoto. 2008. A positional effect in sound symbolism: An experimental study. In Proceedings of the Japan Cognitive Linguistics Association, vol. 8, 417–427. Tokyo: JCLA.Search in Google Scholar
Keating, Patricia A. 1984. Phonetic and phonological representation of stop consonant voicing. Language 60. 286–319. https://doi.org/10.2307/413642.Search in Google Scholar
Keating, Patricia A. 1988. Palatals as complex segments: X-ray evidence. UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics 69. 77–91. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-2005.1988.tb01311.x.Search in Google Scholar
Kingston, John & Randy Diehl. 1994. Phonetic knowledge. Language 70. 419–454. https://doi.org/10.1353/lan.1994.0023.Search in Google Scholar
Knoeferle, Klemens, Jixing Li, Emanuela Maggioni & Charles Spence. 2017. What drives sound symbolism? Different acoustic cues underlie sound-size and sound-shape mappings. Scientific Reports 7. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-05965-y.Search in Google Scholar
Kubozono, Haruo. 1999. Nihongo-no onsei: gendai gengogaku nyuumon 2 [Japanese phonetics: An introduction to modern linguisitcs 2]. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.Search in Google Scholar
Kumagai, Gakuji & Shigeto Kawahara. 2019. Effects of vowels and voiced obstruents on Pokémon names: Experimental and theoretical approaches [in Japanese]. Journal of the Linguistic Society of Japan 155. 65–99.Search in Google Scholar
Kumagai, Gakuji & Shigeto Kawahara. 2020. How abstract is sound symbolism? Labiality and diaper names in Japanese [in Japanese]. Journal of the Linguistic Society of Japan 157. 149–161.Search in Google Scholar
Lehiste, Ilse. 1970. Suprasegmentals. Cambridge: MIT Press.Search in Google Scholar
Lisker, Leigh. 1986. “Voicing” in English: A catalog of acoustic features signaling /b/ versus /p/ in trochees. Language and Speech 29. 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/002383098602900102.Search in Google Scholar
Lockwood, Gwilym & Mark Dingemanse. 2015. Iconicity in the lab: A review of behavioral, developmental, and neuroimaging research into sound-symbolism. Frontiers in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01246.Search in Google Scholar
MacNeilage, Peter F., Barbara L. Davis & Christine L. Matyear. 1997. Babbling and first words: Phonetic similarities and differences. Speech Communication 22(2-3). 269–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0167-6393(97)00022-8.Search in Google Scholar
Marks, Lawrence. 1978. The unity of the senses: Interrelations among the modalities. New York: Academic Press.10.1016/B978-0-12-472960-5.50011-1Search in Google Scholar
Mattes, Veronika. 2017. The semantic categories of lexical reduplication. Studies in Language 41(4). 813–842. https://doi.org/10.1075/sl.16024.mat.Search in Google Scholar
Maurer, Daphne, Thanujeni Pathman & Catherine J. Mondloch. 2006. The shape of boubas: Sound-shape correspondences in toddlers and adults. Developmental Science 9. 316–322. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2006.00495.x.Search in Google Scholar
McCarthy, John J. 1982. Prosodic structure and expletive infixation. Language 58. 574–590. https://doi.org/10.2307/413849.Search in Google Scholar
Nevins, Andrew & Ioana Chitoran. 2008. Phonological representations and the variable patterning of glides. Lingua 118(12). 1979–1997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2007.10.006.Search in Google Scholar
Newman, Stanley. 1933. Further experiments on phonetic symbolism. American Journal of Psychology 45. 53–75. https://doi.org/10.2307/1414186.Search in Google Scholar
Nooteboom, Sieb. 1981. Lexical retrieval from fragments of spoken words: Beginnings vs. endings. Journal of Phonetics 9. 407–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0095-4470(19)31017-4.Search in Google Scholar
Nuckolls, Janis B. 1999. The case for sound symbolism. Annual Review of Anthropology 28. 225–252. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.28.1.225.Search in Google Scholar
Ohala, John. 1983. The origin of sound patterns in vocal tract constraints. In Peter MacNeilage (ed.), The production of speech, 189–216. New York: Springer-Verlag.10.1007/978-1-4613-8202-7_9Search in Google Scholar
Ohala, John. 1994. The frequency code underlies the sound symbolic use of voice pitch. In Leane Hinton, Johanna Nichols & John Ohala (eds.), Sound symbolism, 325–347. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511751806.022Search in Google Scholar
Ota, Mitsuhiko. 2015. L1 phonology: Phonological development. In Haruo Kubozono (ed.), The handbook of Japanese language and linguistics: Phonetics and phonology, 681–717. Berlin: Mouton.10.1515/9781614511984.681Search in Google Scholar
Peña, Marcela, Jacques Mehler & Marina Nespor. 2011. The role of audiovisual processing in early conceptual development. Psychological Science 22(11). 1419–1421. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611421791.Search in Google Scholar
Perniss, Pamela, Robin L. Thompson & Gabriella Vigiliocco. 2010. Iconicity as a general property of language: Evidence from spoken and signed languages. Frontiers in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00227.Search in Google Scholar
Proctor, Michael I., Christine H. Shadle & Khalil Iskarous. 2010. Pharyngeal articulation differences in voiced and voiceless fricatives. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 127(3). 1507–1518. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.3299199.Search in Google Scholar
Ramachandran, Vilayanur S. & Edward M. Hubbard. 2001. Synesthesia-a window into perception, thought, and language. Journal of Consciousness Studies 8(12). 3–34.Search in Google Scholar
Sapir, Edward. 1929. A study in phonetic symbolism. Journal of Experimental Psychology 12. 225–239. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0070931.Search in Google Scholar
Saussure, Ferdinand de. 1916. Cours de linguistique générale. Paris: Payot.Search in Google Scholar
Schmidtke, David S., Markus Conrad & Arthur M. Jacobs. 2014. Phonological iconicity. Frontiers in Psychology 5(80). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00080.Search in Google Scholar
Shih, Stephanie S., Jordan Ackerman, Noah Hermalin, Sharon Inkelas, Hayeun Jang, Jessica Johnson, Darya Kavitskaya, Shigeto Kawahara, Miran Oh, Rebecca L. Starr & Alan Yu. 2019. Cross-linguistic and language-specific sound symbolism: Pokémonastics. Ms. University of Southern California, University of California, Merced, University of California. Berkeley: Keio University, National University of Singapore and University of Chicago.Search in Google Scholar
Shih, Stephanie S., Jordan Ackerman, Noah Hermalin, Sharon Inkelas & Darya Kavitskaya. 2018. Pokémonikers: A study of sound symbolism and Pokémon names. Proceedings of LSA 2018. https://doi.org/10.3765/plsa.v3i1.4335.Search in Google Scholar
Shih, Stephanie S. & Deniz Rudin. 2020. On sound symbolism in baseball player names. Names. https://doi.org/10.1080/00277738.2020.1759353.Search in Google Scholar
Shinohara, Kazuko & Shigeto Kawahara. 2016. A cross-linguistic study of sound symbolism: The images of size. In Proceedings of the Thirty Sixth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, 396–410. Berkeley: Berkeley Linguistics Society.10.3765/bls.v36i1.3926Search in Google Scholar
Sidhu, David & Penny M. Pexman. 2015. What’s in a name? Sound symbolism and gender in first names. PloS One 10(5). e0126809. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0126809.Search in Google Scholar
Sidhu, David & Penny M. Pexman. 2018. Five mechanisms of sound symbolic association. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 25(5). 1619–1643. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-017-1361-1.Search in Google Scholar
Sidhu, David & Penny M. Pexman. 2019. The sound symbolism of names. Current Directions in Psychological Science 28(4). 398–402. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721419850134.Search in Google Scholar
Sidhu, David M., Kristen Deschamps, Joshua S. Bourdage & Penny M. Pexman. 2019. Does the name say it all? Investigating phoneme-personality sound symbolism in first names. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 148(9). 1595–1614. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000662.Search in Google Scholar
Sidhu, David M., Penny M. Pexman & Jean Saint-Aubin. 2016. From the Bob-Kirk effect to the Benoit-Éric effect: Testing the mechanism of name sound symbolism in two languages. Acta Psychologica 169. 88–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2016.05.011.Search in Google Scholar
Slater, Anne Saxon & Saul Feinman. 1985. Gender and the phonology of North American first names. Sex Roles 13. 429–440. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00287953.Search in Google Scholar
Spence, Charles. 2011. Crossmodal correspondences: A tutorial review. Attention. Perception & Psychophysics 73(4). 971–995. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-010-0073-7.Search in Google Scholar
Stevens, Kenneth. 1998. Acoustic phonetics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Search in Google Scholar
Stevens, Kenneth & Sheila Blumstein. 1981. The search for invariant acoustic correlates of phonetic features. In Peter Eimas & Joanne D. Miller (eds.), Perspectives on the study of speech, 1–38. New Jersey: Earlbaum.Search in Google Scholar
Styles, Suzy J. & Lauren Gawne. 2017. When does maluma/takete fail? Two key failures and a meta-analysis suggest that phonology and phonotactics matter. i-Perception 8(4). 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/2041669517724807.Search in Google Scholar
Sullivan, Lisa. 2018. Phonology of gender in French and English names. Toronto: University of Toronto Master’s thesis.Search in Google Scholar
Suzuki, Michinori. 2017. The sound symbolic patterns in Pokémon move names. Talk presented at Asia Junior Linguistics (AJL). Tokyo: International Christian University.Search in Google Scholar
Svantesson, Jan-Olof. 2017. Sound symbolism: The role of word sound in meaning. WIRE Cog Sci 8. e01441. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1441.Search in Google Scholar
Uno, Ryoko, Kazuko Shinohara, Yuta Hosokawa, Naho Ataumi, Gakuji Kumagai & Shigeto Kawahara. 2020. What’s in a villain’s name? Sound symbolic values of voiced obstruents and bilabial consonants. Review of Cognitive Linguistics 18(2). 428–457. https://doi.org/10.1075/rcl.00066.uno.Search in Google Scholar
Whalen, Douglas H. & Andrea G. Levitt. 1995. The universality of intrinsic F0 of vowels. Journal of Phonetics 23. 349–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0095-4470(95)80165-0.Search in Google Scholar
Whissell, Cynthia. 2001. Cues to referent gender in randomly constructed names. Perceptual & Motor Skills 93. 856–858. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.2001.93.3.856.Search in Google Scholar
Wong, Kristen Wing Yan & Yoonjung Kang. 2019. Sound symbolism of gender in Cantonese first names. Proceedings of ICPhS 19. 2129–2133.Search in Google Scholar
Wright, Saundra, Jennifer Hay & Bent Tessa. 2005. Ladies first? phonology, frequency, and the naming conspiracy. Linguistics 43(3). 531–561. https://doi.org/10.1515/ling.2005.43.3.531.Search in Google Scholar
© 2021 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
