Abstract
Understanding changes in nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) flows with the changes of crop-livestock systems is critical for sustainable agricultural development but has received little attention. This study presents a case study to estimate N and P flow changes in crop-livestock systems, of the dramatic agricultural transformation of Pinghe, an emerging county in Southeast China. The main nutrient inputs and outputs in the crop systems were fertilizer and soil accumulation, respectively. In the livestock system, the main nutrient inputs and outputs were imported feed and recycled manure, respectively. From 1985 to 2015, the total N and P inputs into Pinghe’s crop-livestock system increased from 11.0 and 1.2 Gg (Gg = 109 g) to 53.0 and 11.9 Gg, respectively. N and P use efficiency of the crop systems decreased from 24 and 42% to 10 and 6%, respectively; those in the livestock systems increased from 13 and 6% to 16 and 7%, respectively. The overall N and P use efficiency of the crop-livestock system decreased from 32 and 50% to 11 and 6%, respectively. The sharp increase in nutrient input and decrease in internal nutrient recycling are the main reasons for the decrease in system nutrient use efficiency. Scenario analyses indicated that there are large options for improving nutrient use efficiency and decreasing nutrient losses. We recommend a strong control of nutrient inputs, a tight coupling of crop and livestock production systems with effective manure recycling, and buffer areas between agricultural land and vulnerable water bodies, and with erosion control in hilly areas.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alexandratos N, Bruinsma J (2012) World agriculture towards 2030/2050: the 2012 revision. ESA Working paper No.12–03. Rome, FAO. http://www.fao.org/3/ap106e/ap106e.pdf. Accessed 3 September 2020.
Amenumey SE, Capel PD (2014) Fertilizer consumption and energy input for 16 crops in the United States. Nat Resour Res 23:299–309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11053-013-9226-4
Bai ZH, Ma L, Qin W, Chen Q, Oenema O, Zhang FS (2014) Changes in pig production in China and their effects on nitrogen and phosphorus use and losses. Environ Sci Technol 48:12742–12749. https://doi.org/10.1021/es502160v
Bai ZH, Ma WQ, Ma L, Velthof GL, Wei ZB, Havlík P, Oenema O, Lee MRF, Zhang FS (2018) China’s livestock transition: Driving forces, impacts, and consequences. Sci Adv 4:eaar8534. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aar8534
Chen MP, Graedel TE (2016) A half-century of global phosphorus flows, stocks, production, consumption, recycling, and environmental impacts. Global Environ Change 36:139–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.12.005
Chen XP, Zhang FS (2006) The technical index system of soil testing and formula fertilization was established through the “3414” experiment. China Agr Technol Ext 22:36–39 ((In Chinese))
Chen XP, Cui ZL, Fan MS, Vitousek P, Zhao M, Ma WQ, Wang ZL, Zhang WJ, Yan XY, Yang JC, Deng XP, Gao Q, Zhang Q, Guo SW, Ren J, Li SQ, Ye YL, Wang ZH, Huang JL, Tang QY, Sun YX, Peng XL, Zhang JW, He MR, Zhu YJ, Xue JQ, Wang GL, Wu L, An N, Wu LQ, Ma L, Zhang WF, Zhang FS (2014) Producing more grain with lower environmental costs. Nature 514:486–489. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13609
Chen MP, Sun F, Shindo J (2016) China’s agricultural nitrogen flows in 2011: Environmental assessment and management scenarios. Resour Conserv Recy 111:10–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2016.03.026
Chen XH, Ma L, Ma WQ, Wu ZG, Cui ZL, Hou Y, Zhang FS (2018) What has caused the use of fertilizers to skyrocket in China? Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 110:241–255. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-017-9895-1
Chen XH, Xu XZ, Lu ZY, Zhang WQ, Yang JC, Hou Y, Wang XZ, Zhou SG, Li Y, Zhang FS (2020) Carbon footprint of a typical pomelo production region in China based on farm survey data. J Clean Prod 277:124041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124041
Conley DJ, Paerl HW, Howarth RW, Boesch DF, Seitzinger SP, Havens KE, Lancelot C, Likens GE (2009) Controlling eutrophication: Nitrogen and phosphorus. Science 323:1014–1015. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1167755
ECCS (Editor Committee of China Statistical yearbook) (2016) China Statistical Yearbook. China Statistics Press. (In Chinese)
Eckard RJ, Chapman DF, White RE (2007) Nitrogen balances in temperate perennial grass and clover dairy pastures in south-eastern Australia. Aust J Agr Res 58:1167–1173. https://doi.org/10.1071/AR07022
ECPS (Editor Committee of Pinghe Statistical yearbook) (2016) Pinghe Statistical Yearbook. China Statistics Press. (In Chinese)
Ervinia A, Huang JL, Huang YL, Lin JY (2019) Coupled effects of climate variability and land use pattern on surface water quality: An elasticity perspective and watershed health indicators. Sci Total Environ 693:133592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133592
Fageria NK, Baligar VC (2005) Enhancing nitrogen use efficiency in crop plants. Adv Agron 88:97–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(05)88004-6
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) (2020) FAOSTAT database: Agriculture production. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. http://www.fao.org/faostat/zh/#data. Accessed 3 September 2020.
Franco W, Barbera F, Bartolucci L, Felizia T, Focanti F (2020) Developing intermediate machines for high-land agriculture. Dev Eng 5:100050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.deveng.2020.100050
Guo JH, Liu XJ, Zhang Y, Shen JL, Han WX, Zhang WF, Christie P, Goulding KWT, Vitousek PM, Zhang FS (2010) Significant acidification in major Chinese croplands. Science 327:1008–1010. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1182570
Guo YQ, Tu Y, Zhang NF, Liu GH, Tang DF, Wang ZY, Zhong H, Li YJ, Ma L (2018) Current situation and optimization strategy of phosphorus recommendation level and phosphate application of feed in China. Sci Agr Sin 51:581–592. https://doi.org/10.3864/j.issn.0578-1752.2018.03.015 ((In Chinese))
Heffer P, Gruère A, Roberts T (2017) Assessment of fertilizer use by crop at the global level 2014–2014/15. International Fertilizer Association and International Plant Nutrition Institute, Paris. https://www.fertilizer.org/images/Library_Downloads/2017_IFA_AgCom_17_134%20rev_FUBC%20assessment%202014.pdf. Accessed 8 Jan 2021.
Hristov AN, Hazen W, Ellsworth JW (2006) Efficiency of use of imported nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium and potential for reducing phosphorus imports on Idaho dairy farms. J Dairy Sci 89:3702–3712. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(06)72411-0
Jiao XQ, Nyamdavaa M, Zhang FS (2018) The transformation of agriculture in China: looking back and looking forward. J Integr Agr 17:755–764. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(17)61774-X
Ledgard SF, Journeaux PR, Furness H, Petch RA, Wheeler DM (2004) Use of nutrient budgeting and management options for increasing nutrient use efficiency and reducing environmental emissions from New Zealand farms. In: OECD expert meeting on farm management indicators and the environment. Session 5, Palmerston North, New Zealand, pp 8–12.
Liu WR, Zeng D, She L, Su WX, He DC, Wu GY, Ma XR, Jiang S, Jiang CH, Ying GG (2020a) Comparisons of pollution characteristics, emission situations, and mass loads for heavy metals in the manures of different livestock and poultry in China. Sci Total Environ. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139023
Liu YW, Cheng DM, Xue JM, Weaver L, Wakelin SA, Feng Y, Li ZJ (2020b) Changes in microbial community structure during pig manure composting and its relationship to the fate of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes. J Hazard Mater 389:122082. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122082
Li Y, Han MQ, Lin F, Ten Y, Lin J, Zhu DH, Guo P, Weng YB, Chen LS (2015) Soil chemical properties, “Guanximiyou” pummelo leaf mineral nutrient status and fruit quality in the southern region of Fujian province, China. J Soil Sci Plant Nut 15:615–628. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-95162015005000029
Li Q, Wagan SA, Wang YB (2021) An analysis on determinants of farmers’ willingness for resource utilization of livestock manure. Waste Manage 120:708–715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.10.036
Ma L, Ma WQ, Velthof GL, Wang FH, Qin W, Zhang FS (2010) Modeling nutrient flows in the food chain of China. J Environ Qual 39:1279–1289. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2009.0403
Ma L, Velthof GL, Wang FH, Qin W, Zhang WF, Liu Z, Zhang Y, Wei J, Lesschen JP, Ma WQ, Oenema O, Zhang FS (2012) Nitrogen and phosphorus use efficiencies and losses in the food chain in China at regional scales in 1980 and 2005. Sci Total Environ 434:51–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.03.028
Ma L, Velthof GL, Kroeze C, Ju XT, Hu CS, Oenema O, Zhang FS (2014) Mitigation of nitrous oxide emissions from food production in China. Curr Opin Env Sust 9–10:82–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2014.09.006
Ma YF, Bai ZH, Ma L, Nie YQ, Jiang RF (2018) Temporal and spatial changes of nutrient flows and losses in the peri-urban crop and livestock system in Luancheng. Sci Agr Sin 51(3):493–506. https://doi.org/10.3864/j.issn.0578-1752.2018.03.009 ((in Chinese))
MOAC (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic of China) (2016) The Chinese agricultural statistical data in 1985–2016. China Agricultural Press (In Chinese)
MOAC (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic of China) (2015) Action plan for zero growth in fertilizer use by 2020. Agr Technol Promot Qinghai 2(3–5):11. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1008-7117.2015.02.001
NATSC (National Agricultural Technology Extension Service Center) (2015) Data set of soil basic nutrients for soil testing and formula fertilization. China Agricultural Press (In Chinese)
Oenema O, Witzke HP, Klimont Z, Lesschen JP, Velthof GL (2009) Integrated assessment of promising measures to decrease nitrogen losses from agriculture in EU-27. Agr Ecosyst Environ 133:280–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2009.04.025
Oenema J, Van Ittersum M, Van Keulen H (2012) Improving nitrogen management on grassland on commercial pilot dairy farms in the Netherlands. Agr Ecosyst Environ 162:116–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2012.08.012
PCLCC (Pinghe County Local Chronicles Compilation Committee) (2009) Pinghe soil. Mass Publishing House (In Chinese)
Quemada M, Lassaletta L, Jensen LS, Godinot O, Brentrup F, Buckley C, Foray S, Hvid SK, Oenema J, Richards KG, Oenema O (2020) Exploring nitrogen indicators of farm performance among farm types across several European case studies. Agr Syst 177:102689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2019.102689
Schröder JJ, Neeteson JJ (2008) Nutrient management regulations in the Netherlands. Geoderma 144:418–425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2007.12.012
Tilman D, Clark M (2014) Global diets link environmental sustainability and human health. Nature 515:518–522. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13959
Van der Hoek, KW (1998) Nitrogen efficiency in global animal production. In: Nitrogen, the Confer-N-s. Proceedings of the First International Nitrogen Conference. Pp 127–132. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-043201-4.50023-X
Vitousek PM, Naylor R, Crews T, David MB, Drinkwater LE, Holland E, Johnes PJ, Katzenberger J, Martinelli LA, Matson PA, Nziguheba G, Ojima D, Palm CA, Robertson GP, Sanchez PA, Townsend AR, Zhang FS (2009) Nutrient imbalances in agricultural development. Science 324:1519–1520. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1170261
Wang MR, Ma L, Strokal M, Chu YN, Kroeze C (2017) Exploring nutrient management options to increase nitrogen and phosphorus use efficiencies in food production of China. Agr Syst 163:58–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2017.01.001
Willems J, van Grinsven HJM, Jacobsen BH, Jensen T, Dalgaard T, Westhoek H, Kristensen IS (2016) Why Danish pig farms have far more land and pigs than Dutch farms? Implications for feed supply, manure recycling and production costs. Agr Syst 144:122–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2016.02.002
Wu JC, Malmstroem ME (2015) Nutrient loadings from urban catchments under climate change scenarios: Case studies in Stockholm, Sweden. Sci Total Environ 518–519:393–406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.02.041
Wu GJ, Cao WZ, Huang Z, Kao CM, Chang CT, Chiang PC, Wang FF (2017) Decadal changes in nutrient fluxes and environmental effects in the Jiulong River Estuary. Mar Pollut Bull 124(2):871–877. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.01.071
Xin LJ, Li XB, Tan MH (2012) Temporal and regional variations of China’s fertilizer consumption by crops during 1998–2008. J Geogr Sci 22:643–652. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11442-012-0953-y
Xu XZ (2019) Comprehensive evaluation of carbon emission and optimum fertilization in Guanxi pomelo production. Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Master thesis. (In Chinese)
Yan ZJ, Liu PP, Li YH, Ma L, Alva A, Dou ZX, Chen Q, Zhang FS (2013) Phosphorus in China’s intensive vegetable production systems: over fertilization, soil enrichment, and environmental implications. J Environ Qual 42:982–989. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2012.0463
Yousaf W, Awan WK, Kamran M, Ahmad SR, Bodla HU, Riaz M, Umar M, Chohan K (2021) A paradigm of GIS and remote sensing for crop water deficit assessment in near real time to improve irrigation distribution plan. Agr Water Manage 243:106443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2020.106443
Yu H, Liu K, Bai YY, Luo Y, Wang T, Zhong J, Liu SQ, Bai ZY (2021) The agricultural planting structure adjustment based on water footprint and multi-objective optimization models in China. J Clean Prod 297:126646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126646
Zhang WF, Dou ZX, He P, Ju XT, Powlson D, Chadwick D, Norse D, Lu YL, Zhang Y, Wu L, Chen XP, Cassman KG, Zhang FS (2013) New technologies reduce greenhouse gas emissions from nitrogenous fertilizer in China. P Natl Acad Sci USA 110:8375–8380. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1210447110
Zhang YN, Long HL, Wang MY, Li YR, Ma L, Chen KQ, Zheng YH, Jiang TH (2020) The hidden mechanism of chemical fertiliser overuse in rural China. Habitat Int 102:102210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2020.102210
Zhu QC, Vriesb WD, Liu XJ, Hao TX, Zeng MF, Shen JB, Zhang FS (2017) Enhanced acidification in Chinese croplands as derived from element budgets in the period 1980–2010. Sci Total Environ 618:1497–1505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.09.289
Acknowledgements
The study was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2016YFD0200400, 2017YFD0200200). We also thank the students from Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University who took part in bringing their scientific and literacy knowledge and offering medical services to rural area activities for this survey research.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Liangquan Wu: Funding acquisition, Writing-original Draft, Project administration; Donghui Liu: Writing-original Draft, Data Curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Visualization; Writing-Review & Editing; Xiaohui Chen: Conceptualization, Writing-Original draft, Writing-Review & Editing, Validation, Formal analysis; Changcheng Ma: Data Curation, Investigation; Haodan Wang: Writing-Review & Editing, Resources; Yanting Zhang: Data Curation, Investigation; Xiuzhu Xu: Data Curation, Investigation; Yuan Zhou: Investigation, Writing-Review & Editing.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wu, L., Liu, D., Chen, X. et al. Nutrient flows in the crop-livestock system in an emerging county in China. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 120, 243–255 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-021-10147-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-021-10147-4