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The Strength of Massive to Moderately Jointed Rock and its Application to Cave Mining

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Abstract

The early understanding of the rock masses in which a mine will be constructed and operated is of fundamental importance and required for developing reliable designs. To assist such understanding, this contribution is focused on massive to moderately jointed rock mass domains, their behaviour under load, rock mass strength, assessment, and implications to some cave mine design elements. Since more cave mines are being studied, constructed, and operated at greater depths, the need to understand and design in high stress and in massive to moderately jointed rock mass conditions is critical. Cave mines, by their nature, are vulnerable to disruption from unanticipated rock mass behaviour and at risk for unreliability. Cave mine excavations and their geometric layouts are constructed early in the mine life (when there is limited understanding of the rock mass and its response underload) and have minimal flexibility to be modified as experience is gained in the rock mass. They are thus fragile systems. Many design aspects that have a large financial impact on the investment value of a cave mine have the potential to be negatively influenced by unplanned or inappropriately considered rock mass conditions.

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Fig. 1

Modified from Kaiser et al. (2015)

Fig. 2
Fig. 3

modified from Hoek et al. 1995)

Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8

modified from Hoek and Martin 2014)

Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12

(modified from Cai et al. 2004 based on Martin 1993a, b)

Fig. 13
Fig. 14

(modified from information contained in Hoek and Brown 1980a with σmax calculated from available data and elastic stress models). b Stress Reduction Factor (SRF) relative to increasing ratios of σmax to the rock’s intact compressive strength (σc) (modified from Kaiser et al. 1996 based on Barton et al. 1974) showing when strainbursts would be expected

Fig. 15
Fig. 16
Fig. 17

(modified from Kaiser et al. 2000)

Fig. 18

(modified from Bewick et al. 2015)

Fig. 19

(modified from Bewick et al. 2019a)

Fig. 20
Fig. 21
Fig. 22

(modified from Laubscher and Jakubec 2000). b Comparison of RBS from IRMR and laboratory determined combined and defect network failure types (1:1 line shown for reference)

Fig. 23
Fig. 24

(modified from Kaiser et al. 2000 based on Diederichs 1999)

Fig. 25
Fig. 26
Fig. 27

(modified from Wawersik and Fairhurst 1970) with overlay of three lines of constant micro-strain at 10,000, 15,000, and 22,000 showing a transition from a post-peak strength drop in specimens at low confinement to zero strength drop around 4000psi (~ 27 MPa) confinement. b Peak strength and the three post-peak strength states based on the lines of constant strain in (a)

Fig. 28

(modified from Stavrogin et al. 1981) with overlay of three lines of constant micro-strain at ~ 3000, ~ 5000, and ~ 7500 showing a reduction in post-peak strength drop in specimens with increase in confining stress. b Peak strength and the three post-peak strength states based on the lines of constant strain in (a) plotted between 0 and 50 MPa confinement for clarity at low confinement. c Peak strength and the three post-peak strength states based on the lines of constant strain in (a) plotted between 0 and 150 MPa confinement. b and c also show a 43° angle of friction for reference

Fig. 29
Fig. 30

(modified from Kaiser 2006)

Fig. 31
Fig. 32
Fig. 33
Fig. 34
Fig. 35
Fig. 36
Fig. 37
Fig. 38
Fig. 39

(modified from Cai and Kaiser 2018)

Fig. 40
Fig. 41

(modified from Cai and Kaiser 2018). b Locations of highly stressed ground with strainbursting risk behind stress fractured rock (in blue) (Color figure online)

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Acknowledgements

Mr. Justin Roy provided review of this manuscript and worked with Dr. Bewick on Golder (2018) which formed key elements of Section 6.5. I would like to acknowledge Dr. Mark Board, Dr. Erik Eberhardt, Mr. Richard Beddoes, Mr. Allan Moss, Mr. Ko Korenromp, Dr. Peter Kaiser, and Dr. Evert Hoek for their constructive reviews during the development of this contribution. Dr. Hoek is thanked for pushing me to develop this document and providing early input into some sections for their detailed development. Dr. Kaiser is thanked for his detailed review, support, and willingness to make time for excellent discussions over the last 14 years. I would also like to thank a reviewer who wishes to be anonymous. You have always been a great sounding board.

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Appendix 1

Appendix 1

For the brittle rock mass strength database plotted in Fig. 16. See references [1, 6, 21, 22, 28, 30, 36, 38, 42, 43, 44, 45, 53, 75, 77, 80, 82, 84, 86, 88, 93, 94, 99, 102, 116].

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Bewick, R.P. The Strength of Massive to Moderately Jointed Rock and its Application to Cave Mining. Rock Mech Rock Eng 54, 3629–3661 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-021-02466-3

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