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The Evolutionary Ecology of Primate Hair Coloration: A Phylogenetic Approach

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Abstract

Understanding trait evolution is essential for explaining modern biological diversity, and this is particularly exemplified by studies of coloration. Recent studies have applied evolutionary models to understand animal coloration, yet we have limited knowledge of how this trait evolves in mammals in a comparative context. Here we use phylogenetic methods to examine how different traits are associated with the evolutionary diversity of primate hair color. We hypothesize that hair color evolves independently across body regions, and that variation in biological and ecological traits influence patterns of hair color evolution. To test this, we quantify the phylogenetic signal of coloration for each body region, then compare the fit of three evolutionary models and a null, non-phylogenetic model to explain color variation across 94 primate species. We then test how trait optima and rate of color evolution covary with biological traits, clade membership, and habitat. Phylogenetic signal varies across regions, with head and forelimb coloration exhibiting the highest values. Head and forelimb coloration is best explained by an Ornstein-Uhlenbeck model, which could suggest stabilizing selection, whereas a null model best fits other body regions. Rates of hair color evolution and optimal color values vary across species with different visual systems, activity patterns, habitat types, and clade memberships. These results suggest that selective pressures are acting independently across body regions and across different primate taxa. Our results emphasize the importance of investigating patterns of trait evolution across regions of the body, as well as incorporating relevant biological and ecological traits into evolutionary models.

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Data Availability

Data are archived via the Dryad Digital Repository https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.dbrv15f16.

Code Availability

Code is archived via the Dryad Digital Repository https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.dbrv15f16.

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Acknowledgements

We thank Eileen Westwig at the AMNH and the late Bill Stanley at the FMNH for access to the primate collections and logistical support. We thank Richard Lawler and two anonymous reviewers, whose constructive feedback greatly improved this manuscript.

Funding

Funding to collect museum data was provided to JMK by Washington University (St. Louis), the Field Museum of Natural History, and the Leakey Foundation. JMK’s and BJB’s research on primate hair evolution is also supported by the National Science Foundation (BCS #1546730, BCS #1606360), the Wenner-Gren Foundation, The George Washington University, the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Yale University, and the Natural Environment Research Council, UK.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Graduate Program in Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, USA

    Rachel B. Bell & Jason M. Kamilar

  2. Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, Department of Anthropology, The George Washington University, Washington DC, USA

    Brenda J. Bradley

  3. Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, USA

    Jason M. Kamilar

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RBB and JMK conceived and designed the analysis. JMK collected the raw hair color data. RBB performed the statistical analyses and drafted the manuscript. RBB, JMK, and BJB interpreted the results and edited the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Rachel B. Bell.

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Bell, R.B., Bradley, B.J. & Kamilar, J.M. The Evolutionary Ecology of Primate Hair Coloration: A Phylogenetic Approach. J Mammal Evol 28, 911–927 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10914-021-09547-8

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