Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-42gr6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-19T00:56:11.730Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

EVERYDAY RACISM IN SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH

A Systematic Review and Future Directions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 April 2021

Dounia Bourabain  and
Pieter-Paul Verhaeghe
Dounia Bourabain*
Affiliation:
Department of Sociology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel
Pieter-Paul Verhaeghe
Affiliation:
Department of Sociology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel
*
Corresponding author: Dounia Bourabain, Sociology Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 5, 1050 Elsene, Belgium. E-mail: Dounia.Bourabain@vub.be.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Since the 1980s, everyday racism has gained ground within the social sciences. However, the theory of everyday racism has not been properly adopted and, consequently, varies across different research fields. The main goal of this study is to improve the scientific rigor within research on everyday racism in the human and social sciences. Following a review of the ground-breaking work of Philomena Essed, three main components in everyday racism literature are theoretically distilled and conceptualized: (1) repetitiveness and familiarity, (2) racism and (3) the interdependent link between micro-interactions and macro-structures. This is followed by a critical assessment of what everyday racism means and how it is assessed in research today, by performing a systematic electronic review of qualitative-methods papers. We make three suggestions towards a more complete and sophisticated understanding of everyday racism. Firstly, the concepts of everyday racism and microaggressions need to be disconnected from each other. Secondly, research should focus more on the symbiotic relation between micro-interactions and macro-structures and should also identify relevant situational features at the spatial meso-level. Lastly, it is important to be cautious of the pitfall of cultural determinism that is still a popular perspective in today’s field of (everyday) racism.

Keywords

Race/Ethnic RelationsEveryday DiscriminationEveryday RacismPhilomena EssedSystematic ReviewMicroaggressions
Type
State of the Art
Information
Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race , Volume 18 , Issue 2 , Fall 2021 , pp. 221 - 250
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Hutchins Center for African and African American Research

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Ahmed, Sara (2007). A Phenomenology of Whiteness. Feminist Theory, 8(2): 149–168. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464700107078139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amin, Ash (2002). Ethnicity and the Multicultural City: Living with Diversity. Environment and Planning, 34(6): 959–980.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arisaka, Yoko (2010). Paradox of Dignity: Everyday Racism and the Failure of Multiculturalism. Ethik und Gesellschaft, 2. http://www.ethik-und-gesellschaft.de/ojs/index.php/eug/article/view/2-2010-art-3/107 (accessed February 25, 2021).Google Scholar
Bailey, Kerry A. (2016). Racism within the Canadian University: Indigenous Students’ Experiences. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 39(7): 1261–1279. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2015.1081961.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker-Lewton, Alison, Sonn, Christopher C., Vincent, David Nyuol, and Curnow, Fletcher (2017). ‘I Haven’t Lost Hope of Reaching out … ’: Exposing Racism in Sport by Elevating Counternarratives. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 21(11): 1097–1112. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2017.1350316.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banaji, Shakuntala (2013). Everyday Racism and “My Tram Experience”: Emotion, Civic Performance, and Learning on YouTube. Comunicar, 20(40): 69–78. https://doi.org/10.3916/C40-2013-02-07.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beagan, Brenda L. (2003). ‘Is This Worth Getting into a Big Fuss over?’: Everyday Racism in Medical School. Medical Education, 37(10): 852–860. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2923.2003.01622.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beagan, Brenda L., and Etowa, Josephine (2009). The Impact of Everyday Racism on the Occupations of African Canadian Women. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 76(4): 285–293. https://doi.org/10.1177/000841740907600407.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ben-Eliezer, Uri (2008). Multicultural Society and Everyday Cultural Racism: Second Generation of Ethiopian Jews in Israel’s ‘Crisis of Modernization’. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 31(5): 935–961. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870701568866.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Billiet, Jaak, and de Witte, Hans (2008). Everyday Racism as Predictor of Political Racism in Flemish Belgium. Journal of Social Issues, 64(2): 253–267. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2008.00560.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bloch, Barbara, and Dreher, Tanja (2009). Resentment and Reluctance: Working with Everyday Diversity and Everyday Racism in Southern Sydney. Journal of Intercultural Studies, 30(2): 193–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/07256860902766982.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo (1997). Rethinking Racism: Toward a Structural Interpretation. American Sociological Review, 62(3): 465–480. https://doi.org/10.2307/2657316 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo (2017). Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America. Lanham, MD: Rowlan & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Bourabain, Dounia, and Verhaeghe, Pieter-Paul (2020). The Conceptualization of Everyday Racism in Research on the Mental and Physical Health of Ethnic and Racial Groups: A Systematic Review. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, August 1. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00824-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brettell, Caroline B. (2011). Experiencing Everyday Discrimination: A Comparison Across Five Immigrant Populations. Race and Social Problems, 3(4): 266–279. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-011-9055-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Came, Heather Anne, and McCreanor, Timothy (2015). Pathways to Transform Institutional (and Everyday) Racism in New Zealand. Sites: A Journal of Social Anthropology and Cultural Studies, 12(2): 24. https://doi.org/10.11157/sites-vol12iss2id290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicourcel, Aaron V. (1981). Notes on the Integration of Micro- and Macro-levels of Analysis. In Knorr-Cetina, Karin and Cicourcel, Aaron V. (Eds.), Advances in Social Theory and Methodology, pp. 51–80. Boston, MA: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Clark, Langston, Harrison, Louis, and Bimper, Albert Y. (2015). Generations: Academic and Athletic Integration of a Southern PWI Basketball Program. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 86(3): 281–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2015.1009529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, Randall (1981). On the Microfoundation of Macrosociology. American Journal of Sociology, 86(5): 984–1014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Copeland, Shawn M. (2010). “Who Is My Neighbor?”: The Challenge of Everyday Racism. Ethik Und Gesellschaft, 2: 1–14.Google Scholar
Creese, Gillian, and Wiebe, Brandy (2012). ‘Survival Employment’: Gender and Deskilling among African Immigrants in Canada. International Migration, 50(5): 56–76. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2009.00531.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deitch, Elizabeth A., Barsky, Adam, Butz, Rebecca M., Chan, Suzanne, Brief, Arthur P., and Bradley, Jill C. (2003). Subtle Yet Significant: The Existence and Impact of Everyday Racial Discrimination in the Workplace. Human Relations, 56(11): 1299–1324. https://doi.org/10.1177/00187267035611002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dines, Nicholas, Cattell, Vicky, Gesler, Will, and Curtis, Sarah (2006). Public Spaces, Social Relations and Well-Being in East London. Bristol, UK: Policy Press.Google Scholar
Dovemark, Marianne (2013). How Private ‘Everyday Racism’ and Public ‘Racism Denial’ Contribute to Unequal and Discriminatory Educational Experiences. Ethnography and Education, 8(1): 16–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/17457823.2012.717199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bois, Du, William, E. B. (1911). The Economics of Negro Emancipation in the United States. The Sociological Review, 4(3): 303–313.Google Scholar
Dunn, Kevin, Loosemore, Martin, Phua, Florence, and Ozguc, Umut (2011). Everyday Ethnic Diversity and Racism on Australian Construction Sites. The International Journal of Diversity in Organizations, Communities, and Nations: Annual Review, 10(6): 129–148. https://doi.org/10.18848/1447-9532/CGP/v10i06/38939.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eliasoph, Nina (1999). ‘Everyday Racism’ in a Culture of Political Avoidance: Civil Society, Speech, and Taboo. Social Problems, 46(4): 479–502. https://doi.org/10.2307/3097072.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Essed, Philomena (1984). Alledaags Racisme. Amsterdam: Feministische Uitgeverij Sara.Google Scholar
Essed, Philomena (1991). Understanding Everyday Racism: An Interdisciplinary Theory. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Fabbro, Francesco, and Ranieri, Maria (2016). Beyond Media Stereotypes: Media Education as an Opportunity to Disclose Everyday Discrimination. Media Education, no. 1. https://doi.org/10.14605/MED711603.Google Scholar
Fanon, Frantz (1986). Black Skin, White Masks. London: Pluto Press.Google Scholar
Feagin, Joe R. (1991). The Continuing Significance of Race: Antiblack Discrimination in Public Places. American Sociological Review, 56(1): 101–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Felski, Rita (1999). The Invention of Everyday Life. New Formations, 39: 15–31.Google Scholar
Fordyce, Robbie, Neale, Timothy, and Apperley, Tom (2016). FCJ-199 Modelling Systemic Racism: Mobilising the Dynamics of Race and Games in Everyday Racism. The Fibreculture Journal, 27. https://twentyseven.fibreculturejournal.org/2016/03/18/fcj-199-modelling-systemic-racism-mobilising-the-dynamics-of-race-and-games-in-everyday-racism/ (accessed February 26, 2021).Google Scholar
Gaertner, Samuel L., and Dovidio, John F. (1986). The Aversive Form of Racism. In Gaertner, Samuel L. and Dovidio, John F. (Eds.), Prejudice, Discrimination and Racism, pp. 61–89. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Garfinkel, Harold (1967). Studies in Ethnomethodology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc. Google Scholar
Gaudio, Rudolf P., and Bialostok, Steve (2005). The Trouble with Culture: Everyday Racism in White Middle-Class Discourse. Critical Discourse Studies, 2(1): 51–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405900500052119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Girard, Victoire (2018). Don’t Touch My Road: Evidence from India on Affirmative Action and Everyday Discrimination. World Development, 103(March): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.10.008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goffman, Erving (1996). Behavior in Public Places: Notes on the Social Organization of Gatherings. New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Guerin, Bernard (2005). Combating Everyday Racial Discrimination without Assuming Racists or Racism: New Intervention Ideas from a Contextual Analysis. Behavior and Social Issues, 14: 46–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hällgren, Camilla (2005). ‘Working Harder to Be the Same’: Everyday Racism among Young Men and Women in Sweden. Race Ethnicity and Education, 8(3): 319–342. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613320500174499.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrison, Anthony K. (2013). Black Skiing, Everyday Racism, and the Racial Spatiality of Whiteness. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 37(4): 315–339. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723513498607.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartmann, Henrik (2011). Perceptions of Everyday Interpersonal Discrimination among Young Men of Turkish Background in Cologne. International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 5(1): 224–233.Google Scholar
Hayes, Crystal M., and Casstevens, Willa J. (2017). Everyday Racism in Black Mothers’ Lives : Implications for Social Work. Social Work Chronicle, 6(1): 13–27.Google Scholar
Hein, Jeremy (2000). Interpersonal Discrimination Against Hmong Americans: Parallels and Variation in Microlevel Racial Inequality. The Sociological Quarterly, 41(3): 413–429. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.2000.tb00085.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heller, Agnes (1984). Everyday Life. London: Routledge & Kégan Paul.Google Scholar
Heller, Agnes (1990). Can Modernity Survive? Berkeley, CA: University California Press.Google Scholar
Herbert, Joanna, May, Jon, Wills, Jane, Datta, Kavita, Evans, Yara, and McIlwaine, Cathy. (2008). Multicultural Living?: Experiences of Everyday Racism Among Ghanaian Migrants in London. European Urban and Regional Studies, 15(2): 103–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/0969776407087544.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holland, Caroline, Clark, Andrew, Katz, Jeanne, and Peace, Sheila (2007). Social Interactions in Urban Places. Bristol, UK: Policy Press.Google Scholar
hooks, bell (1981). Ain’t I a Woman: Black Women and Feminism. Boston, MA: South End Press.Google Scholar
Hopkins, Peter (2004). Everyday Racism in Scotland: A Case Study of East Pollokshields. Scottish Affairs, 49(1): 88–103. https://doi.org/10.3366/scot.2004.0058.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hübinette, Tobias, and Tigervall, Carina (2009). To Be Non-White in a Colour-Blind Society: Conversations with Adoptees and Adoptive Parents in Sweden on Everyday Racism. Journal of Intercultural Studies, 30(4): 335–353. https://doi.org/10.1080/07256860903213620.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humphris, Rachel (2018). On the Threshold: Becoming Romanian Roma, Everyday Racism and Residency Rights in Transition. Social Identities, 24(4): 505–519. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630.2017.1335831.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hyers, Lauri L., and Hyers, Conrad (2008). Everyday Discrimination Experienced by Conservative Christians at the Secular University: Perceptions of Anti-Christian Discrimination. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 8(1): 113–137. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-2415.2008.00162.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, James M. (1997). Prejudice and Racism, 2ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies.Google Scholar
Kwate, Naa Oyo A. (2015). Racism at the Intersections: Gender and Socioeconomic Differences in the Experience of Racism Among African Americans. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 85(5): 397–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lan, Shanshan (2017). ‘China Gives and China Takes’: African Traders and the Nondocumenting States. Journal of Global and Historical Anthropology, 2017(77): 50–62. https://doi.org/10.3167/fcl.2017.770105.Google Scholar
Lander, Vini, and Santoro, Ninetta (2017). Invisible and Hypervisible Academics: The Experiences of Black and Minority Ethnic Teacher Educators. Teaching in Higher Education, 22(8): 1008–1021. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2017.1332029.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leah, Ronnie (1995). Aboriginal Women and Everyday Racism in Alberta: From Lived Experiences of Racism to Strategies for Personal Healing and Collective Resistance. The Journal of Human Justice, 6(2): 10–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02585440.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lefebvre, Henri, and Levich, Christine (1987). The Everyday and Everydayness. Yale French Studies, 73: 7–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leppänen, Taru (2015). The West and the Rest of Classical Music: Asian Musicians in the Finnish Media Coverage of the 1995 Jean Sibelius Violin Competition. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 18(1): 19–34. https://doi.org/10.1177/1367549414557804.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lund, Darren E. (2006). Everyday Racism in Canada: Learning and Teaching Respect. Personal Perspective, Fall: 45–47.Google Scholar
Mapedzahama, Virginia, Rudge, Trudy, West, Sandra, and Perron, Amelie (2012). Black Nurse in White Space?: Rethinking the In/Visibility of Race within the Australian Nursing Workplace. Nursing Inquiry, 19(2): 153–164. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1800.2011.00556.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McConohay, John B. (1986). Modern Racism, Ambivalence, and the Modern Racism Scale. In Dovidio John, F. and Gaertner, Samuel L. (Eds.), Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism, pp. 91–125. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Mjdoob, Towibah, and Shoshana, Avihu (2017). Palatable Arabs: Palestinian Professionals in Work Organizations in Israel. The Sociological Quarterly, 58(2): 163–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380253.2017.1296337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mtose, Xoliswa (2011). Black Peoples’ Lived Experiences of Everyday Racism in Post-Apartheid South Africa. The Journal of International Social Research, 4(17), 325-338.Google Scholar
Mulinari, Paula (2017). Racism as Intimacy: Looking, Questioning and Touching in the Service Encounter. Social Identities, 23(5): 600–613. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630.2017.1281111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Brien, Terri, and Ackroyd, Stephen (2012). Understanding the Recruitment and Retention of Overseas Nurses: Realist Case Study Research in National Health Service Hospitals in the UK. Nursing Inquiry, 19(1): 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1800.2011.00572.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Osterkamp, Ute (1993). Everyday Racism: Recent German Experience. Nature, Society, and Thought, 6(1): 45–56.Google Scholar
Pager, Devah, and Shepherd, Hana (2008). The Sociology of Discrimination: Racial Discrimination in Employment, Housing, Credit, and Consumer Markets. Annual Review of Sociology, 34(1): 181–209. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131740.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patton, Desmond Upton, Brunton, Douglas-Wade, Dixon, Andrea, Miller, Reuben Jonathan, Leonard, Patrick, and Hackman, Rose (2017). Stop and Frisk Online: Theorizing Everyday Racism in Digital Policing in the Use of Social Media for Identification of Criminal Conduct and Associations. Social Media + Society, 3(3): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305117733344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pendergrass, Sabrina (2013). Perceptions of Race and Region in the Black Reverse Migration to the South. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, 10(1): 155–178. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742058X13000088.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pérez Huber, Lindsay, and Solorzano, Daniel G. (2015). Visualizing Everyday Racism: Critical Race Theory, Visual Microaggressions, and the Historical Image of Mexican Banditry. Qualitative Inquiry, 21(3): 223–238. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800414562899.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peterson, Melike (2017). Living with Difference in Hyper-Diverse Areas: How Important Are Encounters in Semi-Public Spaces. Social and Cultural Geography, 18(8): 1067–1085.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pierce, Charles, Carew, Jean V., Pierce-Gonzalez, Diane, and Wills, Deborah (1978). An Experiment in Racism: TV Commercials. In Pierce, Charles (Ed.), Television and Education, pp. 62–88. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Porpora, Douglas V. (1989). Four Concepts of Social Structure. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 19(2): 195–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Räthzel, Nora (2006). From Individual Heroism to Political Resistance: Young People Challenging Everyday Racism on the Labour Market. Journal of Education and Work, 19(3): 219–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/13639080600776763.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riach, Peter A., and Rich, Judith (2002). Field Experiments of Discrimination in the Market Place. The Economic Journal, 112(483): 480–518. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.00080.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, Subrina J. (2013). Spoketokenism: Black Women Talking Back about Graduate School Experiences. Race Ethnicity and Education, 16(2): 155–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2011.645567.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rootham, Esther, Hardgrove, Abby, and McDowell, Linda (2015). Constructing Racialised Masculinities in/through Affective Orientations to a Multicultural Town. Urban Studies, 52(8): 1523–1539. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098014535644.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rusche, Sarah E., and Brewster, Zachary W. (2008). ‘Because They Tip for Shit!’: The Social Psychology of Everyday Racism in Restaurants. Sociology Compass, 2(6): 2008–2029. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9020.2008.00167.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Juan, San, Epifanio (1998). From Institutional Racism to Everyday Racism: Exploratory Notes. Phillipine Sociological Review, 40(1): 76–82.Google Scholar
Schömer, Eva (2016). Sweden, a Society of Covert Racism: Equal from the Outside. Everyday Racism and Ethnic Discrimination in Swedish Society. Oñati Socio-Legal Series, 6(3): 837–856.Google Scholar
Sears, David O. (1988). Symbolic Racism. In Katz, Phyllis A. and Taylor, Dalmas A. (Eds.), Eliminating Racism: Profiles in Controversy, pp. 53–84. New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shin, Hyunjung (2015). Everyday Racism in Canadian Schools: Ideologies of Language and Culture among Korean Transnational Students in Toronto. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 36(1): 67–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2014.892502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shoshana, Avihu (2016). The Language of Everyday Racism and Microaggression in the Workplace: Palestinian Professionals in Israel. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 39(6): 1052–1069. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2015.1081965.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smye, Victoria, Browne, Annette J, Varcoe, Colleen, and Josewski, Viviane (2011). Harm Reduction, Methadone Maintenance Treatment and the Root Causes of Health and Social Inequities: An Intersectional Lens in the Canadian Context. Harm Reduction Journal, 8(1): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7517-8-17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sotkasiira, Tiina, and Haverinen, Ville-Samuli (2016). Battling for Citizenship: A Case Study of Somali Settlement in Lieksa, Finland. Nordic Journal of Migration Research, 6(2): 115–123. https://doi.org/10.1515/njmr-2016-0014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spector, Alan (2014). Racism and Capitalism - Crisis and Resistance: Exploring the Dynamic between Class Oppression and Racial Oppression. Humanity & Society, 38(2): 116–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sue, Derald W., Capodilupo, Christina M., Torino, Gina C., Bucceri, Jennifer M., Holder, Aisha M. B., Nadal, Kevin L., and Esquilin, Marta (2007). Racial Microaggression in Everyday Life: Implications for Clinical Practice. American Psychology, 62(4): 271–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swim, Janet K., Hyers, Lauri L., Cohen, Laurie L., Fitzgerald, Davita C., and Bylsma, Wayne H. (2003). African American College Students’ Experiences With Everyday Racism: Characteristics of and Responses to These Incidents. Journal of Black Psychology, 29(1): 38–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798402239228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swim, Janet K., Pearson, Nicholas B., and Johnston, Kristen E. (2007). Daily Encounters with Heterosexism: A Week in the Life of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Individuals. Journal of Homosexuality, 53(4): 31–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918360802101179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thackwell, Nicola, Swartz, Leslie, Dlamini, Sipho, Phahladira, Lebogang, Muloiwa, Rudzani, and Chiliza, Bonginkosi (2016). Race Trouble: Experiences of Black Medical Specialist Trainees in South Africa. BMC International Health and Human Rights, 16(1): 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12914-016-0108-9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tinarwo, Moreblessing T. (2017). Discrimination as Experienced by Overseas Social Workers Employed within the British Welfare State. International Social Work, 60(3): 707–719. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872814562480.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Torre, Carlos De La (1999). Everyday Forms of Racism in Contemporary Ecuador: The Experiences of Middle-Class Indians. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 22(1): 92–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/014198799329602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Velayutham, Selvaraj (2017). Races without Racism?: Everyday Race Relations in Singapore. Identities, 24(4): 455–473. https://doi.org/10.1080/1070289X.2016.1200050.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, Melanie (2016). Context, Complexity, and Change: Education as a Conversion Factor for Non-Racist Capabilities in a South African University. Race Ethnicity and Education, 19(6): 1275–1287. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2015.1095176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walton, Jessica, Priest, Naomi, and Paradies, Yin (2013). “It Depends How You’re Saying It”: The Complexities of Everyday Racism. International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 7(1): 74–90. https://doi.org/10.4119/ijcv-2959.Google Scholar
Wang, Lu-in (2002). Hate Crime and Everyday Discrimination: Influences Of and On the Social Context. Rutgers Race and the Law Review, 4: 1–31.Google Scholar
Whitley, Rob, Prince, Martin, McKenzie, Kwame, and Stewart, Rob (2006). Exploring the Ethnic Density Effect: A Qualitative Study of a London Electoral Ward. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 52(4): 376–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wigerfelt, Anders S., and Wigerfelt, Berit (2014). A Challenge to Multiculturalism : Everyday Racism and Hate Crime in a Small Swedish Town. Journal of Multicultural Society, 5(1): 48–75.Google Scholar
Wise, Amanda (2010). Sensuous Multiculturalism: Emotional Landscapes of Inter-Ethnic Living in Australian Suburbia. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 36(6): 917–937. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691831003643355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, Phil, and Landry, Charles (2008). The Intercultural City: Planning for Diversity in Advantage. London: Sterling.Google Scholar
Ziemer, Ulrike (2011). Minority Youth, Everyday Racism and Public Spaces in Contemporary Russia. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 14(2): 229–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/1367549410385182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zimmerman, Don H., and Pollner, Melvin (1970). The Everyday World as a Phenomenon. In Douglas, Jack D. (Ed.), Understanding Everyday Life, pp. 80–103. Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing.Google Scholar