Abstract
Intergenerational interactions and exchange are major components of grandparenting, and the present study sought to examine how the intergenerational solidarity framework has been used to investigate grandparenting practices across the lifespan and in different cultures. This framework is widely used across cultures and provides a basis to discuss the future of grandparenting research, considering cultural intermingling and changes in society. Following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, we searched three databases (PsycInfo, PubMed, and Web of Science). Finally, 42 empirical studies that met the inclusion criteria were included in this scoping review. They were published between 1991 and 2020 and assessed intergenerational solidarity between grandparents and their grandchildren. Our findings show that research on grandparenting based on the intergenerational solidarity framework has increased in the last 30 years, and that this model provides a comprehensive approach to studying grandparenting across the lifespan in different cultures. The present study identified cross-cultural differences in the prevalence of the types of intergenerational solidarity. Affectual solidarity was shown to be the most studied dimension of intergenerational solidarity in North America, Europe and Israel, while normative solidarity was the most represented in Asian studies. The only Australian study investigated affectual and functional solidarity. This model is thus suitable for studying grandparenting, but further studies are needed to investigate changes in intergenerational solidarity between grandparents and their grandchildren at different stages of development and account for cultural specificities.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of data and material
NA, all the articles included in this review are accessible through the selection process described by the authors.
Code availability
Not applicable.
References
Albuquerque PC (2011) Grandparents in multigenerational households: the case of Portugal. Eur J Ageing 8(3):189–198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-011-0196-2
Allen K, Henderson A, Murray M (2019) Theoretical approaches to grandparenting. In: Hayslip B Jr, Fruhauf CA (eds) Grandparenting: influences on the dynamics of family relationships. Springer, New York
Amato P, Booth A (1997) A generation at risk: growing up in an era of family upheaval. Harvard, Cambridge
Attar-Schwartz S (2015) Emotional closeness to parents and grandparents: a moderated mediation model predicting adolescent adjustment. Am J Orthopsychiatry 85(5):495–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000082
Attar-Schwartz S, Fuller-Thomson E (2017) Adolescents’ closeness to paternal grandmothers in the face of parents’ divorce. Child Youth Serv Rev 77:118–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.04.008
Bandura A (1977) Social Learning Theory. Prentice Hall
Bengtson VL, Black KD (1973) Intergenerational relations and continuities in socialization. In: Life-span developmental psychology. Academic Press, pp 207–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-077150-9.50015-0
Bengtson VL, Mangen DJ (1988) Family intergenerational solidarity revisited. In: Mangen DJ, Bengtson VL, Landry PH (eds) Measurement of intergenerational relations. Sage Publication Inc, Newbury, pp 222–238
Bengtson VL, Roberts REL (1991) Intergenerational solidarity in aging families: an example of formal theory construction. J Marriage Fam 53(4):856–870. https://doi.org/10.2307/352993
Bengtson VL, Schrader S (1982) Parent–child relations. In: Mangen D, Peterson WA (eds) Research instruments in social gerontology, vol 2. University of Minnesota Press. Blieszner, Minneapolis, pp 115–186
Bengtson V, Giarrusso R, Mabry J, Silverstein M (2002) Solidarity, conflict, and ambivalence: complementary or competing perspectives on intergenerational relationships. J Marriage Family 64(3):568–576. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00568.x
Bordone V, Arpino B, Aassve A (2017) Patterns of grandparental child care across Europe: the role of the policy context and working mothers’ need. Ageing Soc 37(4):845–873. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X1600009X
Bowlby J (1980) Attachment and Loss, vol 3. Basic Books, New York, NY
Bronfenbrenner U (1979) The ecology of human development. Harvard University, Boston
Celdrán M, Triadó C, Villar F (2011) “My grandparent has dementia”: how adolescents perceive their relationship with grandparents with a cognitive impairment. J Appl Gerontol 30(3):332–352. https://doi.org/10.1177/0733464810368402
Chen F, Liu G, Mair CA (2011) Intergenerational ties in context: grandparents caring for grandchildren in china. Soc Forces 90(2):571–594. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sor012
Chun JS, Lee J (2006) Intergenerational solidarity in Korean immigrant families. J Intergenerational Relationsh 4(2):6–21. https://doi.org/10.1300/J194v04n02_02
Cicerelli VG (1991) Attachment theory in old age: Protection of the attached figure. In: Pillemer K, McCartney K (eds) Parent–child relations throughout life. NJ7 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, pp 2–42
Cooney TM, Smith LA (1996) Young adults’ relations with grandparents following recent parental divorce. J Gerontol-Ser B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 51(2):91–95. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/51B.2.S91
Donorfio LK, Kellett K (2006) Filial responsibility and transitions involved: a qualitative exploration of caregiving daughters and frail mothers. J Adult Dev 13:158–167
Dubas JS (2001) How gender moderates the grandparent-grandchild relationship, a comparison of kin-keeper and kin-selector theories. J Family Iss 22(4):478–492
Dunifon RE, Ziol-Guest KM, Kopko K (2014) Grandparent coresidence and family well-being: implications for research and policy. Ann Am Acad Political Soc Sci 654(1):110–126. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716214526530
Elder GH (1998) The life course as developmental theory. Child Dev 69(1):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06128.x
Even-Zohar A (2011) Intergenerational solidarity between adult grandchildren and their grandparents with different levels of functional ability. J Intergenerational Relationsh 9(2):128–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/15350770.2011.567915
Even-Zohar A, Sharlin S (2009) Grandchildhood: adult grandchildren’s perception of their role towards their grandparents from an intergenerational perspective. J Comp Fam Stud 40(2):167–185. https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs.40.2.167
Freeman JD, Elton J, Lambert South A (2019) “A Second-chance at being a parent”: grandparent caregivers’ reported communication and parenting practices with co-residential grandchildren. J Fam Commun 19(3):261–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/15267431.2019.1632864
Fruhauf CA, Jarrott SE, Allen KR (2006) Grandchildren’s perceptions of caring for grandparents. J Fam Issues 27:887–911. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X05286019
Giarrusso R, Stallings M, Bengtson VL (1995) The intergenerational stake hypothesis revisited: Parent–child differences in perceptions of relationships 20 years later. In: Bengtson VL, Schaie KW, Burton LM (eds) Adult intergenerational relations: Effects of societal change. Springer Publishing Company, pp 227–296
Giarusso R, Feng D, Silverstein M, Bengtson VL (2001) Grandparent-adult grandchild affection and consensus. Cross-generational and cross-ethnic comparisons. J Fam Issues 22(4):456–477
Giraudeau C, Duflos M, Chasseigne G (2020) Adolescents’ conceptions of “good” grandparents: a reversal theory approach. J Intergenerational Relationsh 00(00):1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/15350770.2020.1804034
Goode WJ (1960) A theory of role strain. American Sociolog Rev 25(4):483–496. https://doi.org/10.2307/2092933
Goodman CC, Silverstein M (2001) Grandmothers who parent their grandchildren an exploratory study of close relations across three generations. J Fam Issues 22(5):557–578. https://doi.org/10.1177/019251301022005002
Hakoyama M, MaloneBeach EE (2014) Young adults’ perceptions of closeness with their grandparents and attitudes toward aging. Int J Aging Soc 3(4):53–66. https://doi.org/10.18848/2160-1909/CGP
Hakoyama M, Ko HJ, MaloneBeach E (2020) Value similarities with grandparents among college students: gender, family lineage, and relationship closeness. J Intergenerational Relationsh 00(00):1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15350770.2020.1739587
Han WJ, Whetung T, Mao X (2020) One roof, three generations: grandparental co-residence and child outcomes in China. Fam Process 59(3):1144–1160. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12484
Heider F (1958) The psychology of interpersonal relations. John Wiley, New York
Higgins JPT, López-López JA, Becker BJ, Davies SR, Dawson S, Grimshaw JM, Caldwell DM (2019) Synthesising quantitative evidence in systematic reviews of complex health interventions. BMJ Glob Health 4(Suppl 1):e000858. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2018-000858
Hoff A (2007) Patterns of intergenerational support in grandparent-grandchild and parent-child relationships in Germany. Ageing Soc 27(5):643–665. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X07006095
Homans GF (1950) The human group. Harcourt, Brace and World, New York
Homans GC (1958) Social behavior as exchange. American J Sociol 63:597–606
Huo M, Kim K, Zarit SH, Fingerman KL (2018) Support grandparents give to their adult grandchildren. J Gerontol-Ser B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 73(6):1006–1015. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbw208
Igel C, Szydlik M (2011) Grandchild care and welfare state arrangements in Europe. J Eur Soc Policy 21(3):210–224. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958928711401766
Igel C, Brandt M, Haberkern K, Szydlik M (2009) Specialization between family and state intergenerational time transfers in Western Europe Author (s): Corinne Igel, Martina Brandt, Klaus Haberkern and Marc Szydlik source: journal of comparative family studies vol 40, no 2, aging: families. J Comp Fam Stud 40(2):203–226
Ihara ES, Horio BM, Tompkins CJ (2012) Grandchildren caring for grandparents: modeling the complexity of family caregiving. J Soc Serv Res 38(5):619–636. https://doi.org/10.1080/01488376.2012.711684
Ingersoll-Dayton B, Tangchonlatip K, Punpuing S, Yakas L (2018) Relationships between grandchildren and grandparents in skipped generation families in Thailand. J Intergenerational Relationsh 16(3):256–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/15350770.2018.1477646
Jappens M, Bavel J. Van (2020) Grandparent-grandchild relationships and grandchildren’ s well-being after parental divorce in Flanders, Belgium. Does lineage matter? J Fam Res 32(1):1–24
Jappens M, Van Bavel J (2016) Parental divorce, residence arrangements and contact between grandchildren and grandparents. J Marriage Fam 78(2):451–467. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12275
Jappens M, Van Bavel J (2020) Grandparent-grandchild relationships and grandchildren’s well-being after parental divorce in Flanders, Belgium. Does lineage matter? J Fam Res 32(1):1–24
Kemp CL (2004) “Grand” expectations: the experiences of grandparents and adult grandchildren. Canadian J Sociol 29(4):499–525
Kivett VR (1996) The saliency of the grandmother-granddaughter relationship: predictors of association. J Women Aging 8(3–4):25–39. https://doi.org/10.1300/J074v08n03_03
Krzyżowski Ł (2011) In the trap of intergenerational solidarity: FamilY care in poland’s ageing society. Polish Sociol Rev 173(1):55–78
Lakomý M, Kreidl M (2015) Full-time versus part-time employment: Does it influence frequency of grandparental childcare? Eur J Ageing 12(4):321–331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-015-0349-9
LaRossa R, Reitzes DC (1993) Symbolic interaction and family studies. In: Boss PG, Doherty WJ, LaRossa R, Schumm WR, Steinmetz SK (eds) Sourcebook of family theories and methods: a contextual approach. Springer, New-York, pp 135–163
Levac D, Colquhoun H, O’Brien KK (2010) Introduction: rationality. Implement Sci 5(69):1–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-5-69
Lussier G, Deater-Deckard K, Dunn J, Davies L (2002) Support across two generations: children’s closeness to grandparents following parentaldivorce and remarriage. J Family Psychol 16(3):363–376. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.16.3.363
Lou VWQ, Lu N, Xu L, Chi I (2013) Grandparent-grandchild family capital and self-rated health of older rural Chinese adults: The role of the grandparent-parent relationship. J Gerontol-Ser B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 68(4):599–608. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbt040
Luescher K, Pillemer K (1998) Intergenerational ambivalence: A new approach to the study of parent-child relations in later life. J Marriage Fam 60(2):413–425. https://doi.org/10.2307/353858
Maehara T, Takemura A (2007) The norms of filial piety and grandmother roles as perceived by grandmothers and their grandchildren in Japan and South Korea. Int J Behav Dev 31(6):585–593. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025407080588
MaloneBeach EE, Hakoyama M, Arnold S (2018) The good grandparent: perspectives of young adults. Marriage Fam Rev 54(6):582–597. https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2017.1414724
Mann R, Khan HTA, Leeson GW (2013) Variations in grandchildren’s perceptions of their grandfathers and grandmothers: dynamics of age and gender. J Intergenerational Relationsh 11(4):380–395. https://doi.org/10.1080/15350770.2013.839326
Mansson DH, Floyd K, Soliz J (2017) Affectionate communication is associated with emotional and relational resources in the grandparent-grandchild relationship. J Intergenerational Relationsh 15(2):85–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/15350770.2017.1294007
Masfety VK, Aarnink C, Otten R, Bitfoi A, Mihova Z, Lesinskiene S, Carta MG, Goelitz D, Husky M (2019) Three-generation households and child mental health in European countries. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 54(4):427–436. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-018-1640-9
McCubbin HI, Patterson JM (1983) The family stress process. Marriage Fam Rev 6:7–37. https://doi.org/10.1300/J002v06n01_02
Micah DJP, Godfrey C, Khalil H, Mcinerney P, Parker D, Baldini CS (2015) Guidance for conducting systematic scoping reviews. Int J Evid Based Healthc 13:141–146. https://doi.org/10.1097/XEB.0000000000000050
Michels T, Albert I, Ferring D (2011) Emotional relations with grandparents and received support: the adolescent view. J Intergenerational Relationsh 9(3):264–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/15350770.2011.593435
Mills TL (1999) When grandchildren grow up: role transition and family solidarity among baby boomer grandchildren and their grandparents. J Aging Stud 13(2):219–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0890-4065(99)80052-8
Mills TL, Wakeman MA, Fea CB (2001) Mills2001. pdf. J Fam Iss 22(4):427–455
Minkler M, Fuller-Thomson E (2000) Second time around parenting: factors predictive of grandparents becoming caregivers for their grandchildren. Int J Aging Hum Dev 50(3):185–200. https://doi.org/10.2190/7Y1M-UNRT-9BP4-BWL1
Minuchin P (1974) Families and family therapy. Harvard University Press, Cambridge
Minuchin P (2002) Looking toward the horizon: present and future in the study of family systems. In: McHale S, Grolnick W (eds) Retrospect and prospect in the psychological study of families. Erlbaum, Mahwah, pp 259–278
Miron AM, Thompson AE, McFadden SH, Ebert AR (2017) Young adults’ concerns and coping strategies related to their interactions with their grandparents and great-grandparents with dementia. Dementia (London, England). https://doi.org/10.1177/1471301217700965
Monserud MA (2008) Intergenerational relationships and affectual solidarity between grandparents and young adults. J Marriage Fam 70:182–195
Monserud MA (2011) Changes in grandchildren’s adult role statuses and their relationships with grandparents. J Fam Issues 32(4):1–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X10384466.Changes
Moorman SM, Stokes JE (2016) Solidarity in the grandparent-adult grandchild relationship and trajectories of depressive symptoms. Gerontologist 56(3):408–420. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnu056
Moos RH (1990) Conceptual and empirical approaches to developing family-based assessment procedures: resolving the case of the family environment scale. Family process 29(2):199–211. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.1990.00199.x
National Alliance for Caregiving. (2015, June). Caregivers of older adults: A focused look at those caring for someone age 50+. https://www.caregiving.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/2015_ CaregivingintheUS_Care-Recipients-Over-50_WEB.pdf
Parker EM, Short SE (2009) Grandmother co-residence and school enrollment in sub-Saharan Africa. J Fam Issues 30(6):813–836. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X09331921
Piercy KW, Chapman JG (2001) Adopting the caregiver role: a family legacy. Fam Relat 50(4):386–393. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2001.00386.x
Roberts REL, Richards LN, Bengtson V (1991) Intergenerational solidarity in families. Marriage Fam Rev 16(1–2):11–46. https://doi.org/10.1300/J002v16n01_02
Robertson JF (1975) Interaction in three generation families, parents as mediators: toward a theoretical perspective. Int J Aging HumanDev 6(2):103–110. https://doi.org/10.2190/GPFM-TFM5-9Y8Y-LHAK
Ross MET, Aday LA (2006) Stress and coping in African American grandparents who are raising their grandchildren. J Fam Issues 27(7):912–932. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X06287167
Rosow I (1985) Status and role change through the life cycle. In: Binstock RH, Shanas E (eds) Handbook of aging and the social sciences, 2nd edn. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY, pp 62–93
Schilmoeller GL, Baranowski MD (1998) Intergenerational support in families with disabilities: grandparents’ perspectives. Fam Soc 79(5):465–476. https://doi.org/10.1606/1044-3894.714
Silverstein M, Long JD (1998) Trajectories of grandparents’ perceived solidarity with adult grandchildren: a growth curve analysis over 23 years. J Marriage Fam 60(4):912. https://doi.org/10.2307/353634
Silverstein M, Giarrusso R, Bengtson VL (1998) Intergenerational solidarity and the grandparent role. In: Szinovacz M (ed) Handbook on grandparenthood. Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport, pp 144–158
Soliz JE, Lin M-C, Anderson K, Harwood J (2006) Friends and allies: communication in the grandparent-grandchild relationship. In: Floyd K, Morman MT (eds) Widening the family circle. Sage, Thousand Oaks, pp 65–79
Szydlik M (2008) Intergenerational solidarity and conflict. J Comp Family Stud 39:97–114
Szinovacz ME (1998) Grandparents today: a demographic profile. Gerontologist 38:37–52. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/38.1.37
Tavitian ML, Lubiner J, Green L, Grebstein LC et al (1987) Dimensions of family functioning. J Soc Beh Pers 2(2):191–204
Taylor MF, Coall DA, Karthigesu S (2019) Who’ll care for them in the event of me dying? Custodial grandparents’ incapacity, mortality, and succession care-plan fears for their custodial grandchild/ren. J Intergenerational Relationsh 17(2):178–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/15350770.2018.1535344
Tönnies F (1957) Community and society. Michigan State University Press, East Lansing (Translated and edited by Charles P. Loomis)
Tricco AC, Lillie E, Zarin W, O’Brien KK, Colquhoun H, Levac D, Straus SE (2018) PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): checklist and explanation. Ann Intern Med 169(7):467–473. https://doi.org/10.7326/M18-0850
Waites CE (2006) Grandparents communicating with grandchildren: fostering intergenerational understanding. J health soc policy 22(3–4):149–165. https://doi.org/10.1300/j045v22n03_10
Wetzel M, Hank K (2020) Grandparents’ relationship to grandchildren in the transition to adulthood. J Fam Issues 41(10):1885–1904. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X19894355
White JM, Klein DM (2002) Chapter 2: The social exchange and choice framework. Family theories (2nd ed.). Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp 32–57
Williams A, Guendouzi J (2005) Constructing family relationships: intimacy, harmony and social value in accounts of sheltered retirement community residents. J Aging Stud 19(4):453–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaging.2004.10.002
Wise R, Onol A (2020) Intergenerational relationships and aging anxiety among emerging adults in Turkey. J Intergenerational Relationsh 00(00):1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/15350770.2020.1730293
Wood S, Liossis P (2007) Potentially stressful life events and emotional closeness between grandparents and adult grandchildren. J Fam Issues 28(3):380–398. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X06293893
Wyss M, Nedelcu M (2019) Grandparents on the move: a multilevel framework analysis to understand diversity in zero-generation care arrangements in Switzerland. Global Netw 20(2):343–361. https://doi.org/10.1111/glob.12250Robertson
Xu H (2019) Physical and mental health of Chinese grandparents caring for grandchildren and great-grandparents. Soc Sci Med 1982(229):106–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.05.047
Xu L, Chi I (2018) Determinants of support exchange between grandparents and grandchildren in rural China: the roles of grandparent caregiving, patrilineal heritage, and emotional bonds. J Fam Issues 39(3):579–601. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X16662102
Funding
The present study received no funding.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
All authors declare no financial interest/conflict of interest associated with this manuscript.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This work was supported by the EA-2114 Psychologie des Ages de la Vie Et Adaptation (University of Tours).
Responsible Editor: Matthias Kliegel.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Duflos, M., Giraudeau, C. Using the intergenerational solidarity framework to understand the grandparent–grandchild relationship: a scoping review. Eur J Ageing 19, 233–262 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-021-00626-6
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-021-00626-6