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Do Testosterone and Cortisol Jointly Relate to Adolescent Dominance? A Pre-registered Multi-method Interrogation of the Dual-Hormone Hypothesis

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A Correction to this article was published on 19 August 2021

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Abstract

Objective

The goal of the present study was to extend the findings of the dual-hormone hypothesis (DHH) literature by assessing whether the interaction between testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) is associated with dominance in an adolescent sample via multiple methods of measuring T, C, and dominance, and with pre-registration of hypotheses and analyses.

Methods

In a sample of 337 adolescents (Mage = 14.98, SD = 1.51; 191 girls) and their caregivers, hormonal assays were obtained from hair and saliva, and dominance behavior was assessed across four operationalizations (behavioral ratings in a leadership task, self- and caregiver reported dominance motivations, and self-reported social potency).

Results

T and C main effects were generally null across hormone and dominance operationalizations, except that observer-rated dominance was negatively associated with salivary T, and social potency was positively associated with salivary T and negatively associated with salivary C. Support for the DHH was weak. Point estimates reflected a small negative T × C interaction for behavioral ratings of dominance, consistent with the DHH, whereas interaction effects for report-based dominance measures were close to zero or positive.

Conclusions

The results contribute to a growing evidence base suggesting T × C interaction effects are variable across measures and methods used to assess hormones and dominance and highlight the need for comprehensive, multi-method examinations employing best practices in scientific openness and transparency to reduce uncertainty in estimates. Measurement of hormones and dominance outcomes vary across labs and studies, and the largely null results should be considered in that context.

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Notes

  1. Procedures for the present study included the Trier Social Stress Test (Kirschbaum et al., 1993), a task that reliably elicits an acute increase in C levels. Inclusion of this task is a theoretically-relevant potential moderator of dual-hormone effects, as acute C responses (rather than basal C) may moderate the association between T and status-seeking behavior in stress conditions (Prasad et al., 2017; Prasad, Knight, et al., 2019a, 2019b). However, in the present study, the stress-induction task occurred approximately 1.25–1.5 h before the leadership task, which allowed sufficient time for cortisol levels to return to baseline. This time also included a 15-min break during which participants enjoyed self-guided relaxation. C levels at the time of the final saliva sample (M = 7.68, SD = 7.92), which was collected approximately 15 min before the leadership task, were slightly lower than baseline (i.e., averaged T1 and T2) C levels (M = 9.01, SD = 11.20; t(262) = 3.47, 95% CI [0.54, 1.95]). T levels at the time of the final saliva sample (M = 29.23, SD = 38.12) were not significantly different than baseline T levels (M = 31.91, SD = 44.88; t(262) = 1.39, 95% CI [-1.11, 6.43]).

  2. Fifty-one different examiners and 61 different followers were used.

  3. While our leadership task was modeled after that used in Mehta and Josephs (2010) Study 1, there were important differences, including age and gender differences in leader and follower in the present study and fewer designs completed. Further, while participants were explicitly told they would be judged on leadership ability, they were not explicitly told their leadership skills would be compared to other participants.

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  1. Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, 2029 Sheridan Rd., Evanston, IL, 60208, USA

    Allison N. Shields, Cassandra M. Brandes, Raul A. España & Jennifer L. Tackett

  2. Center for Applied Psychological and Family Studies, The Family Institute at Northwestern University, 618 Library Pl, Evanston, IL, 60201, USA

    Kathleen W. Reardon

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Shields, A.N., Brandes, C.M., Reardon, K.W. et al. Do Testosterone and Cortisol Jointly Relate to Adolescent Dominance? A Pre-registered Multi-method Interrogation of the Dual-Hormone Hypothesis. Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology 7, 183–208 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40750-021-00167-3

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