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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 28 April 2021
This article presents comparative research on the role of towns and urban networks in the process of constructing space during conquest and colonization in selected ‘non-Roman’ regions of Europe in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It focuses on Kulmerland in Prussia and Meath in Ireland. In both regions, the creation of urban networks and new regional spaces entailed the use of pre-existing settlement. However, reception intensity was determined by both the state of preservation of the earlier settlement and the needs of territorial authorities. This comparison shows ways of using symbolic potential (names, central places) and former settlement points for the construction of cities. In both territories, the functions of central places were particularized due to subinfeudation.
We are very grateful to Prof. Dr Matthew Stevens for insightful comments and his help in proofreading the text. The article is a result of research implemented thanks to the funds allocated upon the PRELUDIUM grant agreement no. UMO-2016/23/N/HS3/00660 by the National Science Centre, Poland. The shortened version of this article was presented at the ‘Space and Settlement’ conference on 22–3 March 2019 in Trinity College Dublin.
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9 The idea of comparing the processes of conquest and colonization in Ireland and the areas subjected to the German colonization has been pointed out by scholars investigating the history of the towns and urban networks in the High Middle Ages, who tend to observe particularly that each of these individual processes should be analysed as a part of a pan-European process; see e.g. A. Simms, ‘Core and periphery in medieval Europe: the Irish experience in a wider context’, in W.J. Smyth, K. Whelan and T. Jones Hughes (eds.), Common Ground: Essays on the Historical Geography of Ireland Presented to T. Jones Hughes (Cork, 1988), 22–40; B.J. Graham, ‘The High Middle Ages: c. 1100 to c. 1350’, in B.J. Graham and L.J. Proundfoot (eds.), An Historical Geography of Ireland (San Diego, 1993), 59–61; K. Hoare, ‘The evolution of urban oligarchies in Irish towns, 1350–1534’, in L. Klusáková and L. Teulières (eds.), Frontiers and Identities: Cities in Regions and Nations (Pisa, 2008), 91–2; C.A. Empey, ‘Conquest and settlement: patterns of Anglo-Norman settlement in North Munster and South Leinster’, Irish Economic and Social History, 13 (1986), 29; C.A. Empey, ‘The evolution of the demesne in the lordship of Leinster’, in J. Bradley, C. Ó. Drisceoil and M. Potterton (eds.), William Marshal and Ireland (Dublin, 2016), 74; F.H.A. Aalen, Man and the Landscape in Ireland (London, New York and San Francisco, 1978), 117; Erlen, Europäischer Landesausbau; C. Higounet, Die deutsche Ostsiedlung im Mittelalter (Berlin, 1986).
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13 Downey, ‘Literature’, 101; P. Byrne, ‘Mide (Meath)’, in S. Duffy (ed.), Medieval Ireland. An Encyclopedia (New York and London, 2005), 330.
14 B. Jaski, ‘Kings and kingship’, in Duffy (ed.), Medieval Ireland, 251 (map).
15 B.J. Graham, ‘Medieval settlements in County Meath’, Riocht na Midhe, 5 (1974), 40.
16 Veach, ‘Henry II's grant’, 76.
17 E. O'Byrne, ‘Mac Lochlainn, Muirchertach (c. 1110–1166)’, in Duffy (ed.), Medieval Ireland, 296; Byrne, ‘Mide’, 330.
18 M. Clinton, ‘Settlement dynamics in Co Meath: the kingdom of Lóegaire’, Peritia, 14 (2000), 375.
19 ‘as Murchad Ua Máel Sechlainn held it’, Veach, Lordship, 245; see also J. Lydon, The Lordship of Ireland in the Middle Ages (Dublin, 2003), 49; see also K. O'Conor and C. Fredengren, ‘Medieval settlement in Leitrim, c. 1169–c. 1380’, in L. Kelly and B. Scott (eds.), Leitrim: History and Society. Interdisciplinary Essays on the History of an Irish County (Dublin, 2019), 82.
20 On de Lacys’ lordship in Ireland and elsewhere, see Veach, Lordship, 21–70.
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23 On the geographical location and topographical significance of Tara, see T.W. Freeman, Ireland: A General and Regional Geography (Frome and London, 1950), 277–80.
24 Smyth, ‘Tara’, 1.
25 O'Flynn, ‘Mael’, 133; cf. Byrne, ‘The trembling sod’, 31.
26 Smyth, ‘Tara’, 7–9.
27 Byrne, ‘The trembling sod’, 21; Downey, ‘Literature’, 105; Graham, B.J., ‘Urbanization in medieval Ireland, ca. A.D. 900 to ca. A.D. 1300’, Journal of Urban History, 13 (1987), 183–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
28 T.W. Moody, F.X. Martin and F.Y. Byrne (eds.), A New History of Ireland, vol. IX: Maps, Genealogies, Lists (Oxford, 1984), 25.
29 Clinton, ‘Settlement’, 373.
30 M. Hennessy, Irish Historic Towns Atlas (IHTA), no. 14: Trim (Dublin, 2004), 2 (map).
31 Moody, Martin and Byrne (eds.), A New History, 23.
32 A. Simms with K. Simms, IHTA, no. 4: Kells (Dublin, 1990), 1; French, N., ‘Duleek: monastic influence on urban development’, Riocht na Midhe, 26 (2015), 36, 42–3Google Scholar; Graham, ‘Urban genesis’, 9; Bradley, J., ‘The medieval towns of County Meath’, Riocht na Midhe, 8 (1988–89), 30Google Scholar; Moody, Martin and Byrne (eds.), A New History, 25.
33 Byrne, ‘The trembling sod’, 19; D. Ó Cróinin, ‘Ireland, 400–800’, in T.W. Moody, D. Ó Cróinin, F.X. Martin, F.J. Byrne and A. Cosgrove (eds.), A New History of Ireland: Prehistoric and Early Ireland (Oxford, 2005), 206–8.
34 Cf. Hoare, ‘The evolution’, 87–9.
35 Petrus de Dusburg, Chronicon terrae Prussiae, ed. J. Wenta and S. Wyszomirski, in Pomniki Dziejowe Polski, series 2, vol. XIII (Cracow, 2007), 56; M. Löwener, Die Einrichtung von Verwaltungsstrukturen in Preußen durch den Deutschen Orden bis zur Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts (Wiesbaden, 1998), 47–70.
36 S. Jóźwiak, ‘Translokacje Chełmna a powstanie komturstw staro- i nowochełmińskiego’, in R. Czaja and J. Tandecki (eds.), Studia nad dziejami miast i mieszczaństwa w średniowieczu (Toruń, 1996), 83–94; R. Czaja, ‘Die Anfänge preussischer Hansestädte im Lichte der historischen und archäologischen Quellen: Danzig/Gdańsk, Elbing/Elbląg, Thorn/Toruń’, in F. Opll (ed.), Stadtgründung und Stadtwerdung: Beiträge von Archäologie und Stadtgeschichtsforschung (Linz, 2011), 61.
37 S. Jóźwiak, Powstanie i rozwój struktury administracyjno-terytorialnej zakonu krzyżackiego na Kujawach i w ziemi chełmińskiej w latach 1246–1343 (Toruń, 1997), 24–7.
38 ‘which is to be the capital city for other towns that will be founded in this province’, G. Kisch, Forschungen und Quellen zur Rechts- und Sozialgeschichte des Deutschordenslandes, vol. II (Sigmaringen, 1978), 114; Z.H. Nowak and Z. Kozieł, Atlas historyczny Miast Polskich, vol. I: Prusy Królewskie i Warmia, fasc. 3, Chełmno (Toruń, 1999), 2–3, map 2.
39 R. Philippi (ed.), Preußisches Urkundenbuch, vol. I, 1 (Königsberg, 1882), nos. 172 and 188; R. Czaja, ‘Die Kulmer Handfeste, das kulmische Recht und die Stadt Kulm. Ein Beitrag zur Gestaltung der Städtelandschaft im Ordensland Preussen’, in R. Czaja and C. Jahnke (eds.), Städtelandschaft im Ostseeraum im Mittelalter und in der frühen Neuzeit (Toruń, 2009), 75.
40 C.P. Woelky (ed.), Urkundenbuch des Bisthums Culm, vol. I (Leipzig, 1886), no. 18; J. Powierski, ‘O początkach miasta Chełmży i kapituły chełmińskiej (chełmżyńskiej)’, in J. Chrobaczyński, A. Jureczko and M. Śliwa (eds.), Ojczyzna bliższa i dalsza (Cracow, 1993), 101–23.
41 N. French, ‘Hugh de Lacy's legacy’, in Crampsie and Ludlow (eds.), Meath, 181.
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46 Smyth, ‘Tara’, 9–10.
47 J. Bradley, ‘Tara’, in Duffy (ed.), Medieval Ireland, 446. Cf. Courcy's actions in bailwick of Lecale, who ‘chose the time-honoured way of neutralising the main centre of potential Irish disaffection by giving it to the church’, T.E. McNeill, Anglo-Norman Ulster. The History and Archaeology of an Irish Barony, 1177–1400 (Edinburgh, 1980), 13; see also B. Smith, Colonization and Conquest in Medieval Ireland. The English in Louth, 1170–1330 (Cambridge, 1999), 20.
48 A. Hogan, ‘The lands of Llanthony Prima and Secunda in Ireland 1172–1541: the settlement of Meath’, Riocht na Midhe, 20 (2009), 129.
49 N. McHugh, IHTA, no. 29: Drogheda (Dublin, 2019), 1; Veach, Lordship, 21; see also Davies, The First English Empire, 138, 147.
50 French, ‘Hugh’, 188; Graham, ‘Medieval settlements’, 54; see charters for Kells, Trim and Drogheda: G. Mac Niocaill (ed.), Na Buirgeisi Xii – Xv aois (Dublin, 1964), 172; Chartae, Privilegia et Immunitates, Being Transcripts of Charters and Privileges to Cities, Towns, and Other Bodies Corporate…1171–1395 (Dublin, 1829–30), 10.
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52 W. Chudziak, ‘Wczesnośredniowieczny szlak komunikacyjny z Kujaw do Prus – studium archeologiczne’, in W. Chudziak (ed.), Wczesnośredniowieczny szlak lądowy z Kujaw do Prus (XI wiek). Studia i materiały (Toruń, 1997), 24; T. Jasiński, ‘Początki Torunia na tle osadnictwa średniowiecznego’, Zapiski Historyczne, 46 (1981), 5–34; K. Mikulski, ‘Problem tzw. “Wyspy” toruńskiej w świetle źródeł podatkowych z końca XIV i pierwszej połowy XV wieku’, Zapiski historyczne, 61 (1996), 7–24; J. Tandecki and Z. Kozieł, Atlas historyczny Miast Polskich, vol. 1: Prusy Królewskie i Warmia, fasc. 1, Toruń (Toruń, 1995), map 2.
53 W. Chudziak, ‘Chełmno/Kulm: Genese und Funktion einer frühmittelalterlichen Stadt’, Acta Praehistoria et Archaeologica, 42 (2010), 19–40.
54 Dusburg, Chronicon, 59; Philippi (ed.), Preußisches Urkundenbuch, I, 1, nos. 50, 82.
55 After Polish ‘gród’, to denote fortified settlements in medieval Slavic countries; usually earth-and-wooden, located in strategically crucial sites, well defended by means of natural conditions, they fulfilled mainly residential functions; see D. Poliński, ‘Gród czy zamek? Desygnaty terminów oraz konsekwencje ich stosowania w archeologii historycznej i ochronie zabytków’, Archaeologia Historica Polona, 26 (2018), 43.
56 B. Wasik and M. Wiewióra, ‘Castra Terrae Culmensis: the results of new studies of castles in Chełmno Land (Starogród and Unisław)’, Castellologica Bohemica, 18 (2018), 191–209; P. Molewski, B. Wasik and M. Wiewióra, ‘An attempt to reconstruct selected elements of the original site topography of the Teutonic castles at Unisław and Starogród (Chełmno Land, Northern Poland) based on archaeological and cartographic data’, Bulletin of Geography. Physical Geography Series, 15 (2018), 15–26.
57 A. Kola and R. Boguwolski, Region Radzynia Chełmińskiego w pradziejach i wczesnym średniowieczu (Wąbrzeźno, 1996), 5–6; T. Torbus, Die Konventsburgen im Deutschordensstaat Preussen (Munich, 1998), 595–6; B. Wasik, Budownictwo zamkowe na ziemi chełmińskiej (od XIII do XV wieku) (Toruń, 2016), 117–18.
58 Jóźwiak, Powstanie, 90–1; M. Wiewióra and B. Wasik, ‘Zamek w Kowalewie Pomorskim: dzieje warowni w świetle wyników badań archeologiczno-architektonicznych’, Acta Universitatis Nicolai Copernici. Archeologia, 35 (2017), 130–3; R. Czaja, ‘W cieniu średniowiecznego zamku (1246–1534)’, in K. Mikulski (ed.), Historia Wąbrzeźna (Wąbrzeźno, 2005), 80–1.
59 As many as 18 in the territory of modern Meath County; see Murphy, ‘Rural settlement’, 158. The remaining towns were established in Westmeath; see below.
60 Graham, ‘Medieval settlements’, 54; French, ‘Hugh’, 188.
61 Murphy, ‘Rural settlement’, 157; B.J. Graham, ‘Anglo-Norman settlement in County Meath’, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy: Archaeology, Culture, History, Literature, 75 (1975), 226.
62 So-called subinfeudation and encastellation; see Veach, Lordship, 247; Graham, ‘Anglo-Norman settlement’, 226; Murphy, ‘Rural settlement’, 157.
63 Noel French indicated that de Lacy retained six areas as his demesne manors: Trim, Duleek, Kells, Clonard, Killare and Fore; see French, ‘Hugh’, 184; Margaret Murphy mentioned only the ones within Co. Meath, but included also the manor of Ratoath; see Murphy, ‘Rural settlement’, 157. The areas granted to Lacy's vassals; see Brady, ‘Anglo-Norman Meath’, 39.
64 Hogan, ‘The lands’, 123–6.
65 French, ‘Duleek’, 36; Downey, ‘Literature’, 103–14; O'Flynn, ‘Mael’, 135; Graham, ‘Urban genesis’, 6 (map).
66 Murphy, ‘Rural settlement’, 157.
67 It is probable that the grant of Meath to Hugh de Lacy was supposed to create a border zone protecting Dublin; see Veach, ‘Henry II's grant’, 75.
68 Graham, ‘Medieval settlements’, 42–3.
69 Graham, ‘Anglo-Norman settlement’, 226.
70 F.X. Martin, ‘Overlord becomes feudal lord, 1172–85’, in Cosgrove (ed.), A New History of Ireland, vol. II, 105, 110, 117–18; Brady, ‘Anglo-Norman Meath’, 39.
71 J. Bradley, ‘Planned Anglo-Norman towns in Ireland’, in Clarke and Simms (eds.), The Comparative History, vol. II, 422, 437.
72 McHugh, IHTA, no. 29: Drogheda, 2.
73 On the early development of Ratoath and Skryne (before 1200), see Graham, ‘Medieval settlements’, 54; French, ‘Hugh’, 190.
74 Graham, ‘Anglo-Norman settlement’, 226.
75 Veach, Lordship, 249.
76 On this and other mottes and/or stone castles in the Lordship of Meath, see particularly French, ‘Hugh’, 185; Brady, ‘Anglo-Norman Meath’, 39–40; on Ardnurcher, Ballyloughboe and Athleague, see Veach, Lordship, 84 and 184.
77 Veach, Lordship, 84.
78 G. Martin, ‘Plantation boroughs in medieval Ireland, with a handlist of boroughs to c. 1500’, in D. Harkness and M. O'Dowd (eds.), The Town in Ireland. Historical Studies XIII. Papers Read before the Irish Conference of Historians – Belfast 30 May–2 June, 1979 (Belfast, 1981), 43.
79 French, ‘Hugh’, 185.
80 Ibid., 190; Veach, Lordship, 249; on the history of Fore, see e.g. R. Masterson, ‘The early Anglo-Norman colonisation of Fore, Co. Westmeath’, Riocht na Midhe, 8 (2002), 44–60; R. Masterson, ‘The church and the Anglo-Norman colonisation of Ireland. A case study of the Priory of Fore’, Riocht na Midhe, 11 (2000), 60.
81 J.H. Andrews with K.M. Davies, IHTA, no. 5: Mullingar (Dublin, 1992), 1–2.
82 L. Doran, ‘Communication routes through Longford and Roscommon and their associated settlements’, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Section C: Archaeology, Celtic Studies, History, Linguistics, Literature, 104 (2004), 71.
83 Byrne, ‘The trembling sod’, 19.
84 L. Doran, ‘Aspects of Anglo-Norman secular settlement in Longford c. 1300’, 12, unpublished, accessed in Dec. 2019 via www.academia.edu/28289459/Aspects_of_Anglo-Norman_Secular_Settlement_in_Longford_c._1300.
85 Martin, ‘John’, 132; cf. H. Murtagh, IHTA, no. 6: Athlone (Dublin, 1994), 1.
86 G. Cunningham, The Anglo-Norman Advance into the South-West Midlands of Ireland, 1185–1221 (Roscrea, 1987), 62.
87 Cf. B. Graham, ‘Anglo-Norman colonization and the size and spread of the colonial town in medieval Ireland’, in Clarke and Simms (eds.), The Comparative History, vol. II, 359.
88 See also ibid., 361.
89 R. Czaja, ‘Dzieje miasta w średniowieczu (XIII wiek – 1466 rok)’, in J. Dygdała (ed.), Brodnica. Siedem wieków miasta (Brodnica, 1998), 82–3; Jóźwiak, Powstanie, 192–3; J. Powierski, Dobra ostrowicko-golubskie biskupstwa włocławskiego na tle stosunków polsko-krzyżackich w latach 1235–1308 (Gdańsk, 1977), 151–2; A. Radzimiński, ‘Nowe Miasto Lubawskie w średniowieczu’, in M. Wojciechowski (ed.), Nowe Miasto. Zarys dziejów (Lubawa, 1993), 27–8.
90 Czaja, ‘Towns’, 82.
91 R. Philippi (ed.), Preußisches Urkundenbuch. Politische Abteilung, vol. I, 2 (Königsberg, 1909), nos. 581 and 860; X. Froelich (ed.), Geschichte des Graudenzer Kreises, vol. I (Graudenz, 1868), 86–92, 185–6; W. Sieradzan and Z. Kozieł, Atlas historyczny Miast Polskich, vol. I: Prusy Królewskie i Warmia, fasc. 4, Grudziądz (Toruń, 1997), 3, map 2.
92 From 1309, the castle in Marienburg was the main residence of the grand masters of the Teutonic Order.
93 Czaja, ‘Die Formung’, 261–3.
94 Graham, ‘Medieval settlements’, 40; M. Potterton, ‘The archaeology and history of medieval Trim, County Meath’, vol. I, National University of Ireland in Maynooth Ph.D. thesis, 2003, 55.
95 O'Conor and Fredengren, ‘Medieval settlement in Leitrim’, 79, 82; L. Shine, ‘Frontier settlement in Cavan in the high medieval period (1169–1550)’, in J. Cherry and B. Scott (eds.), Cavan: History and Society (Dublin, 2014), 127–38.
96 Doran, ‘Aspects’, 11.
97 Ibid.; Veach, Lordship, 249–51.
98 Cunningham, The Anglo-Norman Advance, 62.
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101 Doran, ‘Communication routes’, 74 (map).
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