Effects of preferential flow induced by desiccation cracks on slope stability
Introduction
Desiccation cracks occur in soil that contains large amounts of hydrophilic minerals, such as illite and montmorillonite, and the mechanical behaviour of such soil is sensitive to variations in the atmospheric environment (Yassoglou et al., 1994; Krisnanto et al., 2014; Kong et al., 2017, Kong et al., 2018). Rainfall-triggered shallow landslides occur frequently on the cracked soil cutting slopes near highways, which constitute hazards to infrastructures and cause significant maintenance problems (Titi and Helwany, 2007; Khan et al., 2016).
However, although shallow landslides can occur on a cracked soil slope with a gentle inclination (Hou et al., 2013; Dai et al., 2017; Xiao et al., 2017; Xie et al., 2020; Pei et al., 2020), the associated failure mechanism has not been determined. Numerous researchers have proposed that slope failure occurs because desiccation cracks act as pathways for rainwater to rapidly infiltrate deep soil and form preferential flow. ((Caris and Van Asch); Hencher, 2010; Li and Zhang, 2011; Khan et al., 2016; Damiano et al., 2017; Xie et al., 2020; (Zhang et al., 2021)). However, some field engineers have argued that desiccation cracks on the surface of most collapsed cracked soil slopes are fine and shallow, and they are thus not deep enough to enable rainwater to deep soil and cause a shallow landslide with a depth of several meters. In addition, (Favre et al., 1997) and (Liu et al., 2003) also found a significant reduction in the infiltration rate when the cracks were closed after wetting. Therefore, the mechanism involved in slope failure via desiccation cracks remains a subject of debate.
Researchers have studied the mechanism involved in rainfall-triggered landslides using numerical modelling (Gasmo et al., 2000; Cai and Ugai, 2004; Lora et al., 2016; Elkamhawy et al., 2018), in-situ experiments (Kong et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 2014; (Cui et al., 2017, Cui and Jiang, 2019)) and laboratory model tests (Take et al., 2004; Schnellmann et al., 2010; Wu et al., 2018). However, the first two methods have inherent problems. For example, numerical models often regard the slope as a homogeneous and isotropic medium, and it is difficult to simulate the non-uniform infiltration process caused by the dynamics of desiccation cracks. In situ experiments are time-consuming, and it is obviously difficult to impose environmental boundary conditions and induce landslides. In contrast, laboratory model tests enable the control of the soil properties and boundary conditions, and also facilitate the monitoring of the infiltration and failure process; therefore, this method is the most reliable for use in studying rainfall-triggered landslides.
Wang and Sassa (2001), Olivares and Damiano (2007) and Damiano and Olivares (2010) conducted laboratory model tests to investigate the conditions required for the occurrence of flow slides, and they analysed the behaviour of pore water pressure and slope displacement. Tohari et al. (2007), Wu et al. (2015) and Chueasamat et al. (2018) conducted small-scale 1 g flume tests and Take et al. (2004) and Kohgo et al. (2011) conducted small-scale centrifuge slope model tests to investigate the effect of density, water level and inclination angle of slope on the deformation and failure mechanism of landslides during artificial rainfall. The results of these model tests indicated that increased pore water pressure and decreased effective stress in the soil caused by rainfall infiltration were the most critical mechanisms underlying slope failure or landslides (Zhang et al., 2019). However, the previous experiments have inherent problems, which are as follows: first, most of the slope models were constructed using loose granular materials because of the ease of triggering slides or flow (Pei et al., 2020), and this may not accurately reflect the real failure characteristics of clayey soil slopes with low permeability, such as cracked soils. Second, to investigate slope stability, only a few small-scale model tests. Second, to investigate slope stability, only a few small-scale model tests (Wang et al., 2005; Amenuvor et al., 2018; Chen, 2019) and in-situ experiments (Xie et al., 2020; Pei et al., 2020) were conducted under rainfall-evaporation cycles to induce desiccation cracks on the soil slopes. These experiments either failed to trigger landslides or they only focused on the developmental characteristics of the desiccation cracks on the slope crest and surface runoff; therefore, limited insights into the internal infiltration process and failure mechanism of the cracked soil slope were obtained. Third, reduced scale and centrifuge model tests are problematic with respect to the scale effects, similarity relations, and the disruptive effects of sensors and their cables (Moriwaki et al., 2004). In summary, it is extremely difficult to reproduce the correct stress field of soil slopes in the laboratory (Jia et al., 2009; Pei et al., 2020).
A full-scale model test was conducted in this study. A cracked soil slope was subjected to rainfall–evaporation cycles, and the characteristics of the desiccation cracks at the slope crest (SC), around the slope shoulder (SS), and the slope foot (SF) were quantified. In addition, the moisture content, matric suction, and pore water pressure at different depths under the crack areas were monitored using hydrologic sensors to identify the effects of desiccation cracks on the infiltration process. The results enabled elucidation of the failure mechanism of the cracked soil slope, and corresponding solutions were thus proposed.
Section snippets
Engineering geological and project background
The study site is located within the Jianghuai hilly region along the Yangtze River. The region spans a length of 194 km, covers an area of 7334 km2, and is a remnant of the Ta-pieh Mountains in Anhui Province, China (Fig. 1). It originates in Anqing City and extends northeastward through the cities of Chizhou, Tongling, Wuwei, Chaohu and finally reaches Ma'anshan City (Cheng et al., 2014). The area lies within a transitional zone from subtropical to warm temperate climate. The average annual
Design of model test system
The full-scale model in this study was designed based on an in-situ cutting slope (i.e., with a height of 3.2 m and an angle of 45°) at the maintenance centre of S22 road that failed between 22 June and 11 July 2017 (Fig. 1 e). The experiment was conducted at a site near the in-situ slope, and the set-up mainly consisted of a mobile artificial precipitation simulator, a steel flume with glass walls, a slope model, and a monitoring station(Fig. 2), which are described below.
The mobile artificial
General observation of slope failure
The entire slope failure process during the nine rainfall events is described in Table 4, and Fig. 8 shows typical photographs of the slope failure. Slope failure primarily included four modes: 1) surface erosion (during rainfall events 1–3); 2) flow-slip and local failure (during rainfall events 4–8), where local failure with a maximum sliding depth of approximately 26 cm (Fig. 8b2) was initiated during rainfall event 5 near the crack monitoring area of SS; 3) overall failure (during rainfall
Crack patterns on slope surface
Desiccation cracks will appear once the tensile stress, generated from the increased matric suction induced by water evaporation, exceeds the tensile strength of the soil (Qi et al., 2020, Yoshida and Adachi, 2004). The polygonal structure has been widely considered as a typical plane pattern of desiccation cracks (Li and Zhang, 2011; Tang et al., 2011a, Tang et al., 2011b). However, our experimental results revealed that the crack patterns were significantly affected by their positions on the
Conclusions
A full-scale slope model test was conducted under rainfall–evaporation cycles, and the characteristics of the crack patterns and hydraulic variations were studied in relation to the infiltration process and failure evolution. The following conclusions were made based on observations and analyses:
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The patterns of desiccation cracks were substantially affected by their positions on the slope and the progression of the rainfall–evaporation cycles. Desiccation cracks on the slope crest maintained a
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
This work was financially supported by the Plan of Anhui Province Transport Technology Progress (grant 2018030) and Anhui Transportation Holding Group Co., Ltd. (grant JKKJ-2017-20). It was also partially funded by the Fundamental Research Founds for National University, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan) (grant 1810491A24). China Railway Investment road and Bridge Co., Lt is acknowledged for their great help in building the experimental set up.
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Professor Chikhotkin Victor, is a foreign teacher employed from other school, and he doesn’t possess an institutional e-mail address of the China University of Geosciences (Wuhan).