Examining joint parent-child interactions involving infants and toddlers when introducing mobile technology

Highlights

• Joint parent-child interaction supports learning potential from mobile technology.

• Parents provide verbal and physical support when introducing technology to children.

• When navigating new technology parents show more verbalizations with older children.

• The interactive potential of technology is not always harnessed with young children.

• Children’s interest in mobile technology is not inherent and increases with age.

Abstract

Research suggests that parents play a critical role in introducing technology to their young children and that parent-child joint engagement with technology can improve learning and social outcomes. The present mixed-methods study extends the current literature by directly observing the interactions of 30 parents with their infant or toddler child (ages 12–24 months) while introducing and engaging with familiar and novel mobile technologies. Qualitative analysis of observations yielded five overarching themes that described key content of parent-child interactions. Subthemes further clarified the types of verbal interactions of the child and of the parent, as well as issues of control over the device, activities and selection choices, skill needs/supports, and interest in the interactions. Developmental milestones and parental surveys contributed to the understanding of developmental change and family media use. Familiarity with the device influenced frequencies of identified themes with greater likelihood for fewer interactions, scaffolds and more passive screen activities with familiar technology. More varied verbal scaffolding was related to higher developmental scores. Physical scaffolding was provided infrequently, despite limited skill in the children. Counter to parental expectations, initiating and sustaining interest even for a short period of time was challenging in some cases. Outcomes suggest that parents engage in a wide array of relevant scaffolds with variability across individuals and child age. Overall, the study provides a rich and complex description of interactions and behaviors when parents introduce mobile devices to their infants and toddlers.

Introduction

Mobile technologies are seamlessly woven into everyday life for the vast majority of children, and increasingly so for infants (Levine et al., 2019; Wood et al., 2016). From 2011–2013 parent surveys indicated a 28 % increase in the percentage of infants using mobile digital devices rising from 10 % to 38 % (Rideout, 2013). By 2017–2019, 46%–47% of children were introduced to mobile technologies before 18 months of age (Levine et al., 2019; Rideout, 2017). In addition, among 2 year-olds and toddlers, access to and interactions with touch screen technologies are reported for as many as 71 % and 89 % of these young children (Ahearne et al., 2016; Kabali et al., 2015). Not only are young children and infants interacting with devices, they are doing so regularly and for considerable periods of time. For example, large scale reports indicate that children as young as 2–4 years of age spend an average of 58 min per day on mobile devices (Rideout, 2017). Even among 1 year-olds, a small proportion (14 %) already use mobile digital devices for at least an hour a day (Kabali et al., 2015).

Interestingly, much of this documented exposure occurred during a time period when the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP; American Academy of Pediatrics, 2011) recommended no-exposure to screen technologies for children 2 years of age and under. In addition, a body of research had accumulated that identified the potential for negative cognitive, social and physical outcomes following exposure to traditional passive screen media, primarily television and video viewing (e.g., Armstrong & Greenberg, 1990; Fosarelli, 1984; Taras et al., 1990). In contrast to these caveats regarding screen use, a growing body of literature has demonstrated the potential for learning gains in foundational skill areas (e.g., literacy and numeracy) when young learners are engaged with high quality, interactive software found in digital, computer-based screen technologies (Lee & Wood, 2020; Piquette et al., 2014; Roschelle et al., 2000; Wood et al., 2012). Although the most recent revisions to the AAP recommendations continue to advise against independent use of screen technologies for infants and toddlers, recommendations instead highlight the importance of active parent involvement if, and when, screen technologies are being used by young children (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2016). Given this focus on parents as facilitators for children’s experiences with screen technologies, the present study observes parent-child interactions involving our youngest users of technology---infants and toddlers.

The introduction of touchscreen technologies paved the way for infants and toddlers to interact with computer-based digital devices. This initial innovation was furthered with the development of mobile touchscreen technologies, especially those sensitive yet robust enough to be handled by infants and toddlers.

Touchscreen technology can complement the abilities of children in the sensorimotor stage of development (Holloway et al., 2013). As infants enter the tertiary circular reactions stage, they become more able to engage in active exploration and trial and error learning (Piaget, 1953). Screen technologies can reward this kind of exploration. Touching the screen is usually the first and only operation required to initiate interaction with the technology. Subsequent refinements include learning where, when and how to touch the screen for a desired outcome. These operations can be learned through trial and error and, therefore, even very young children can quickly come to understand how to manipulate objects on the screen.

Infants and toddlers may also be attracted to touch screen technologies because they provide a rich sensory experience (Neumann et al., 2018; Piaget, 1953). Consistent with the developmental interests of these young sensory-based explorers, high quality software for young children provides dynamic visual displays that are typically accompanied by rewarding auditory cues (e.g., music, bell-ringing, or verbalizations such as good work). Changes in displays and sounds are responsive to the child’s touch or exploration. The interactive and intuitive features of mobile touchscreen technology, combined with the manageability and stimulating sensory experiences afforded by these devices for infants and young children, provide the foundation for infants and toddlers to successfully engage with mobile screen technologies.

Indeed, many parents take advantage of these portable and durable technologies to quickly and easily occupy their children, anytime, anywhere (Zimmerman et al., 2007). When surveyed, however, parents indicate that approximately half of the applications (ranging from 47 % to 51 %) selected for their children’s use involve simply viewing videos (Levine et al., 2019; Rideout, 2013), which fails to utilize the interactive capacity of the devices and might be expected to yield outcomes similar to those of passive television viewing. However, these survey responses do not take into account parent-child interactions. Even passive screen-based activities can become important learning opportunities if parents meaningfully engage children in the content being presented (Lavigne et al., 2015). Overall, the impact of early exposure and use of mobile touchscreen technologies remains largely unknown as there remains a dearth of research, especially with respect to infants and toddlers. A first step in addressing this shortcoming is to investigate use of mobile technologies when facilitated through interactions with an engaged parent (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2016).

Parents are in a unique position to scaffold infants and young children’s first introduction to technology. Vygotsky and Cole (1978) identified the importance of learning from and with others within a cultural and social context. Tasks just beyond children’s abilities often can be attained when scaffolds relevant to the task and the learner are provided (Vygotsky and Cole, 1978). Research indicates that parents and well-designed software can serve as effective sources of scaffolding (McCarrick & Xiaoming, 2007). For example, high quality software that includes immediate and dynamic feedback, can scaffold appropriate responses (Roschelle et al., 2000; Wood et al., 2012). In addition, Yelland and Masters (2007) identified parental use of three types of scaffolds, cognitive, affective and technical, when introducing desktop computers to 7 and 8 year-olds. Cognitive scaffolds facilitated children’s understanding of concepts through parent modeling or question-asking. Affective scaffolds fostered ongoing engagement through praise and encouragement. Technical scaffolds referred to effective instructional strategies that are built into software design such as immediate feedback and automatic leveling (Grant et al., 2012). Neumann and Neumann (2016) also observed these three types of scaffolds when preschoolers and their parents were engaged in joint play with iPads® but extended the definition of technical scaffolds to include parental instructions that assist their children in navigating apps (e.g., “click there”). Interestingly, examination of the prevalence of these three types of scaffolds indicated a greater number of cognitive scaffolds were provided relative to affective or technical ones (Neumann, 2018). Together, these initial explorations of parental scaffolding with screen technologies suggest that parents can engage in developmentally appropriate scaffolding to support their children’s learning and engagement in technology play contexts.

Recent studies also identify differences in how parents deliver their scaffolds. According to Vygotsky and Cole (1978) guided interactions (e.g., instructional dialog) between children and adults can promote a higher level of thinking within the child’s zone of proximal development. A recent study confirmed the importance of verbal interactions for 4.5–5 year-olds learning a coding app. When task-relevant talk was present between parents and children, learning was enhanced (Sheehan et al., 2019). In addition to cognitive gains associated with verbal scaffolding, verbal scaffolds can be used to enhance the emotional context for learning. Wood et al. (2016) identified the unique contributions of both verbal (e.g., praise, encouragement) and physical scaffolds (e.g., thumbs up, hugs, ruffling hair) for promoting a positive, warm interaction between parents and their preschool-first grade children when using an iPad®. Verbal and physical prompts also were identified as mechanisms for providing cognitive and technical scaffolds. Physical prompts included both control of the device (i.e., holding it, pointing) and physically manipulating the child to enhance technical skill (e.g., hand-over-hand movements). When parents physically assist children or talk to children about what they are looking at or how to manipulate what is on the screen, they encourage greater learning than when children learn on their own (Barr et al., 2008; Strouse et al., 2013). The preschool and grade-school learners involved in the existing research would typically be expected to have greater verbal and physical skills than infants and toddlers. Their age and perceived developmental competencies could influence the presence and prevalence of scaffolds parents provide. Younger children, especially infants and toddlers with more limited verbal and physical skills may require different types or greater numbers of scaffolds. The present study examined parental scaffolding of infants and toddlers as a function of children’s age and developmental abilities.

Effective scaffolding matches the learner’s needs and the learning context. With children’s increasing success in navigating a task, and developmental advances as a function of maturity and age, parents should reduce scaffolding to allow children to accomplish the task independently (Wood et al., 1976). Griffith and Arnold (2019) demonstrated differential scaffolding as a function of activity when children and parents were engaged together with traditional reading and math activities (i.e., shared book reading and a math toy) versus reading and math apps. Preschoolers were more likely to take the lead when engaged in the app activity relative to the more traditional math toy play and shared reading activities. Although children exhibited greater autonomy when using the apps, parents provided support when needed. Similarly, Lee and Wood (2020), noted that parents generated fewer teaching scaffolds and were less responsive when preschoolers in their study were engaged in iPad® based early math play than when 3D manipulative objects were used. They suggest that rather than reflecting the child’s independence or decreased need of scaffolding support, parents may withhold necessary scaffolding in technology-based contexts believing that the technology will provide necessary scaffolds. In addition to differences in parental scaffolding as a function across different media, Griffith and Arnold (2019) also noticed differences in the supports parents provided within the same media (i.e., between the reading and math apps).

Although there are few studies to draw upon, these current findings highlight the need to examine different contexts where parents and children are engaged with technology. Specifically, it is important to examine scaffolding across different media but also within given media. The present study investigates whether interactions change as a function of familiarity with the technologies being introduced, specifically, when familiar mobile devices and software typically provided by the parent are compared to novel ones introduced during a testing session.

Despite the increasing use of mobile technology in general, and in particular, in the home with preschooler and school-aged children, there is limited research examining the use of mobile technology with infants, and very few studies examining introduction to technology with children under the age of three (Holloway et al., 2013). In part, this lack of research is the product of the rapid rate of technological innovation. The development of more powerful, mobile, and affordable technologies and the corresponding infrastructure to support them has outpaced research. Technologies have become a ubiquitous part of very young children’s and infant’s lives, therefore it is important to determine the impact of technology use early in life (Kaufman, 2013).

The current study contributes to the literature in two ways. First, the study expands on a growing body of survey data by providing direct observation of parent-child interactions during mobile technology use. Second, the present study extends our understanding of early exposure to technology through observation of parents interacting with their infants and toddlers. The present study also allowed for comparisons in parent-child interactions when engaged with a familiar mobile device, and when a novel device or software is introduced. The primary research question involved describing and documenting parent-child interactions. Given previous literature with older children (i.e., preschoolers and early grade school children) it was expected that parents would employ some verbal, physical, and technical strategies. A second research question involved examination of potential context influences in the interactions when play with a familiar device was contrasted with the introduction of a novel device/software. Children’s reactions as well as parental behaviors were observed. Finally, a third research question provided an exploratory examination of potential connections between children’s development (based on standardized development measures) and parental interactions during joint mobile technology use. This question permits a first look at the potential for the differential use of scaffolds and types of interactions as a function of the child’s abilities and age. This study provides a foundation for understanding how mobile technology is used for infants and very young children and the developmental implications that follow use.